心理学专业英语基础 56章

1、CHAPTER 5Social PsychologyWhat is Social Psychology?Social Psychologyscientific study of how we think about, influence, and relate to one another.社会心理学是研究人们怎样想、怎样相互影响以及怎样与别人相联系的科学。Social power 社会影响Pro- and anti-social behaviour 亲社会行为与反社会行为Social relationships 社会关系Social PsychologySocial power 社会影响So

2、cial PsychologyOur behavior is affected by our inner attitudes as well as by external social influences.Social power InternalattitudesExternalinfluencesBehaviorDefinitionSocial power refers to the influence a person has to change anothers thoughts, feelings, or behaviours.Three typesConformity 顺从Com

3、pliance 依从Obedience 服从Social power Conformity顺从The tendency for people to bring their behavior in line with group norms.Changing to match groups standards.ConformityAschs conformity experimentsConformityConformityParticipants judged which person in Slide 2 was the same as the person in Slide 1.Diffi

4、cult judgmentsEasy judgmentsConformity higheston importantjudgmentsLow HighImportance50%403020100Percentage ofconformity toconfederateswrong answersCompliance依从Doing something because someone asked us to.Two types导致依从的心理技术Commitment-based techniques许诺Norm of Reciprocity-based techniques互惠ComplianceF

5、oot in the DoorSmall request (accepted) followed by larger (accepted due to initial commitment).By getting us to commit to a small item, we are more likely to commit to larger items.Commitment-based ComplianceCommitment-based ComplianceWhy do these work?We like to think that our self-identity is con

6、sistent.Once we agree to this person on this topic, we like to maintain consistency and keep agreeing.Door in the FaceInitial large request (rejected) followed by a smaller request (accepted).The requester has lowered their demands so you feel the need to reciprocate by giving in a little.We should

7、do for those who have done for us.Norm of Reciprocity-based ComplianceObedienceDoing something because a legitimate authority figure asked us to.Stanley Milgram (1960s)The participant is the teacher, the confederate is the learner.If the learner makes an error, the teacher has to shock himwith the l

8、evel of shock increasing to dangerous and deadly levels.As the level of shock increases, the P can hear the learner is in obvious pain.ObedienceMilgrams follow-up obedience experimentObedienceGroup Polarization群体极化enhancement of a groups prevailing主流的attitudes through discussion within the group.指在群

9、体中进行决策时，人们往往会比个人决策时更倾向于冒险或保守，向某一个极端偏斜，从而背离最正确决策。Group thinkingGroupthink群体思维mode of thinking that occurs when the desire for harmony in a decision-making group overrides 推翻realistic appraisal 评价of alternatives.群体对于从众的压力使群体对少数人的或不受欢送的观点得不出客观的评价。在群体就某一问题或提议发表意见时，有时会长时间处于集体沉默状态，没有人发表见解，而后又会一致通过。通常是组织内那

10、些拥有权威，说话自信，喜欢发表意见的主要成员的想法更容易被接受，但其实大多数人并不赞成这一提议。Group thinkingBrain storming头脑风暴Brainstorming in groups increases creativity and error detection, but is less efficient in terms of man hours of work工作时数.最早是精神病理学上的用语，指精神病患者的精神错乱状态而言的。而现在那么成为无限制的自由联想和讨论的代名词，其目的在于产生新观念或激发创新设想。Group thinkingGroup behavio

11、urConformity顺从If a group is like-minded, discussion strengthens its prevailing优势的 opinions.Group behaviourSocial Facilitation社会助长improved performance of tasks in the presence of others.occurs with simple or well-learned tasks but not with tasks that are difficult or not yet mastered.Group behaviourS

12、ocial Loafing社会性懈怠tendency for people in a group to exert less effort when pooling their efforts toward attaining a common goal than when individually accountable.Deindividuation去个体化loss of self-awareness 自我意识and self-restraint自我监控 in group situations that foster 培养arousal and anonymity匿名.人们在群体中，一旦面

13、临群情高涨，情绪冲动，就很容易处于去个体化的状态，当个体处于去个体化状态时，个人的行为就较少的受自己的个性和意志的支配，而倾向于依从整个群体的状态，群体的规模越大，气氛越强烈，越易于引发人的去个体化状态。Crowd behaviourPro- and anti-social behaviour 亲社会行为与反社会行为Social PsychologyPro-social BehaviorAny act that helps or is meant to help others.It doesnt matter what the helpers motivation is.Two typesHe

14、lping behaviour 助人Altruism 利他Pro-social BehaviorKin selectionGene survival is more important than the individuals survival.By helping our relatives, we are giving our genes a greater chance of surviving, even if it harms our own life.Parents behave more altruistically to healthy offspring to unhealt

15、hy ones (Dovidio et al., 1991)Evolutionary TheorySocial Exchange Theory We want to maximize our benefits and minimize our costsWe examine the costs and rewards of helping and not helping.3 rewards of helpingReciprocity 互惠They will owe us when we need help (or at least it eventually balances out).Rel

16、ieves distress 缓和痛苦We dont like to see others suffer.Social approval 社会赞同Others like us more when we are viewed as helpful and increases our self-worth.Social Exchange Theory Women are universally perceived as kinder, more soft-hearted, and more helpful (Williams & Best, 1990).But over 90% of Carneg

17、ie Hero awards 卡耐基英雄奖go to men (for saving, or attempting to save, the life of another).Gender and HelpingWomenHelp those they already know.Help in nurturing 照顾、扶持ways involving long-term commitment.MenHelp strangers in emergency situations.Help in chivalrous骑士风范的, heroic ways.Gender and HelpingPeop

18、le are more willing to help when they are in a good moodIsen & Levin, 197284% of those who found dime硬币 helped, only 4% of those who did not find dime helpedWhy do good moods increase helping?Interpret events sympatheticallyMood-maintenanceGood moods increase self-attentionMood & HelpingPeople in a

19、bad mood will help under certain conditionsNegative-state relief hypothesisPeople help to alleviated 减轻their own sadness and distress.Mood & HelpingThe story of Kitty Genovese (1964)1964年3月，在纽约昆士镇的克尤公园发生了一起谋杀案，很快成为?纽约时报?的头版新闻，并使全国感到震惊。这件谋杀案受注意的原因与凶手、被害者或其谋杀手段都没有什么关系。 Kitty Genovese是一位年轻的酒吧经理，她于早上3点回

20、家途中被温斯顿莫斯雷刺死。莫斯雷是个事务处理机操作员，根本不认识她，他以前还杀死过另外两名妇女。使这场谋杀成为大新闻的原因是，这次谋杀共用了半个小时的时间莫斯雷刺中了她，离开，几分钟后又折回来再次刺她，又离开，最后又回过头来再刺她，这期间，她反复尖叫，大声呼救，有38个人从公寓窗口听见和看到她被刺的情形。没有人下来保护她，她躺在地上流血也没有人帮她，甚至都没有给警察打 。Bystander effectThe tendency to be less likely to help if others are also presentBystander EffectSmoke-filled roo

21、m study (Latan and Darley, 1968)IV: left alonewith 2 other real participantswith 2 other confederates协助者 who pretended nothing was wrongDV: Percentage of participants who reported smokeBystander Effect806020040Smoke-Filled Room StudyPercent who report smokeAloneWith 2 other real subjectsWith 2 calm

22、confederatesBystander EffectBystander Effecttendency for any given bystander to be less likely to give aid if other bystanders are presentThe decision-making process for bystander interventionBystander EffectStep 1: Notice the EventIn order to help, you must realize something is happening.Often peop

23、le are distracted and dont even notice (especially in large cities).Step 2: Interpret as Emergency If you see someone lying on the sidewalk, does that mean they need or want help?Pluralistic ignorance 人众无知can play a role here.Others not helping, must not be a problem.Situational Influences:5 Steps t

24、o HelpingStep 3: Feel responsibleJust because you notice someone in need of help, is that your problem?Diffusion扩散of responsibility plays a role at this step.Step 4: Know how to helpIf someone appears to need medical care and youre not a nurse or doctor, then what?If you cant offer appropriate help,

25、 you likely wont try.5 Steps to HelpingStep 5: Assess costs of helpingYou see someone in need of help, you feel responsible, you know what to do, butCould be highly dangerous.Could make you financially liable有责任的.Could embarrass you.5 Steps to HelpingU.S. has highest murder rate in the world among d

26、eveloped countriesMore than 15,000 murders every yearMore than 92,000 reported rapesMore than 7 million reported violent acts overallEvery 5 minutes a child is arrested for a violent crimeMore than 50% of 5th graders report being a victim of violence (70% of those have seen weapons used)Guns kill an

27、 American child every 3 hoursViolenceAggression攻击性行为Behavior intended to injure another who is motivated to avoid it.Assertiveness魄力，自信Behavior intended to express dominance or confidence.Assertiveness is not aggression.AggressionAggressive impulses may be hereditary(遗传).Twin studies: Correlations o

28、f aggression higher among monozygotic 同卵twins than dizygotic异卵pairs.Aggression is associated withLow levels of serotonin 5-羟色胺Activation of the amygdala 杏仁核can lead to aggressive behaviors.Biological TheoriesMen use more physical, direct forms of aggressionMens aggression is more likely to do physic

29、al harm, and thus gets more attention.Girls and women use more indirect forms of aggression (e.g., spreading rumors 谣言).There is no clear sex difference in reporting feelings of anger.Gender Differences in AggressionProvocation: The great equalizer均衡器?Men are more likely to attack physically when un

30、provoked 未受挑衅的than women.What happens when people are irritated, frustrated, or threatened by another person?Bettencourt & Miller (1996)Conducted a meta-analysis of gender differences in aggression.Found that when provocation is involved, the typical gender difference in physical aggression is reduc

31、ed or eliminated.Gender Differences in AggressionHeat 温度Humidity 湿度Pain 痛苦Noxious fumes 有毒炮烟Poverty 贫困Crowding 拥挤Physical Discomfort & AggressionMore TV sets in United States than toiletsMedia consumption is #1 pass-time 消磨时光among Americans, particularly youth.60%-70% of all TV programs contain viol

32、enceBy the time the average American child graduates from elementary school小学:More than 8,000 murders.More than 100,000 other acts of violence.Media ViolenceMore recently, video games have become kids favorite form of media.90% of kids age 2-17 play regularly.Majority of popular games are violent.Me

33、dia ViolenceGrand Theft Auto 侠盗猎车手Mortal Kombat 搏斗之王Since at least 1970, researchers have known of a link between violent media and aggression.Weakened inhibitions against violent behavior.Imitation模仿of specific violent acts.Aggression primed as a response to anger.Desensitization减低敏感to violence.Ove

34、restimation of prevalence流行of violence in real life.Media Violence1. “Not all who play violent games/watch violent media become killers.True. Not all smokers die of lung cancer, either.The point is NOT whether exposure leads inevitably必然地 to criminal mayhem暴行, but that the likelihood of aggression i

35、s increased.Common ResponsesEffects of VVGs (Bushman & Anderson, 2001)Correlation with VVG ExposureFindings from a meta-analysis-0.3-0.2-0.3AggressionHelpingHostileThoughtsHostileAffectArousal2. “Effects are trivially smallFalse. Effects are larger than many that we take for grantedCommon

36、Responses3. “Playing violent games/watching violence allows people to “vent feelings of angerFalse. Watching violence or engaging in virtual虚拟的 violence increases aggression.Catharsis 情绪宣泄doesnt work!Common Responses1. The media is simply “holding a mirror to society. False. Real world is far less v

37、iolent than the TV/Movie world.0.2% of crimes are murders; 50% of crimes on TV are murdersAverage of 7 characters are killed on TV each night.If applied in reality, this proportion of murder would wipe out U.S. population in 50 days.Media Industry Response 2. “Were simply giving the public what they

38、 want.Maybe. But viewer interest is only one factor driving programming decisions.Societal 社会的violence can be considered a hazardous 有危险的by-product副产品.Also, most popular shows are not violent.Media Industry Response3. “Violence sells!False. TV violence significantly decreases memory for commercial 商

39、业广告messages.Bushman, 199819% of viewers will be less likely to remember an ad if it is embedded in a violent show.Media Industry ResponseSocial relationships 社会关系Social PsychologyTypesLiking 喜欢The affection 感情felt for casual 偶然的 acquaintances点头之交.Companionate Love 友爱deep affectionate attachment we f

40、eel for those with whom our lives are intertwined交缠.Passionate Love 激情爱情an aroused state of intense 强烈的positive absorption迷恋 in another.Social RelationsConceptions of attractiveness vary by cultureSocial Relations- AttractivenessFactors influencing the formation of attraction:Situational factorsProx

41、imityExposureFamiliarityPersonal factorsPhysical attractivenessSimilarityReciprocal互惠的 likingAttractivenessWe like those we are close to both physically and functionally.Why does proximity work?It increases familiarity.Often linked to similarity.It makes others more available.Cognitive consistency.I

42、ts easier to be around others who we like, therefore we feel a need to get along with people we see often.Attraction - ProximityMere纯粹的 Exposure Effectrepeated exposure to novel stimuli increases liking of them.Why does exposure work?There is a link between exposure and familiarity, also between fam

43、iliarity and attraction.Attraction - ExposureSimply seeing a person more frequently can increase our liking of that person.This only works if our initial reaction is either neutral or positive.Seeing a negative stimulus repeatedly simply makes us not like it even more.Why does familiarity work?Repea

44、ted exposure increases recognition.We assume that familiar others are similar to ourselves.Attraction - FamiliarityBeauty is in the eye of the beholder观看者for the most part.Walster et al (1966) Computer Dance studyUsed a computer service to match people for blind dates (but they were really randomly

45、assigned).Physical attractiveness was the only significant predictor of liking.Attraction - Physical attractivenessHalo effect of beautyAttractive people are judged more favorably on other traits than are less attractive people.Pretty people are assumed to have better:Social skills,Intellectual 智力co

46、mpetence能力,Greater integrity正直 and concern for others.Is it true?Certainly not for intelligence or integrity but sort of for social skills.Attraction - Physical attractivenessMatching PrincipleThe tendency to choose similar partners.FriendsSocial class, educational level, and religious backgrounds.R

47、omantic partnersAge, social class, ethnicity种族, and religion.Attraction - SimilarityWhy does the similarity effect occur?Similar others are easier and more pleasant to be around.Expectancy-value TheoryMaybe we deliberately谨慎地 select people for their similarity to us.The reward for dating someone sim

48、ilar to us is highbut so is the probability that they will like us.Attraction - SimilarityWe like people who like us.Reward-cost principleWe will be attracted to those who like us and consistently make positive comments about us, as opposed to those who do not (presumably because it increases our se

49、lf esteem 自我评价).Attraction reciprocal likingPrejudice 偏见an unjustifiable (and usually negative) attitude toward a group and its members.involves stereotyped beliefs, negative feelings, and a predisposition倾向 to discriminatory差异对待的 action.Social RelationsDoes perception change with race? Social Relat

50、ionsAmericans today express much less racial and gender prejudice Social RelationsOrigins of PrejudiceSocializationWe are not born with stereotypes, but we grow to imitate those who we respect.Stereotype 刻板印象a generalized (sometimes accurate, but often overgeneralized) belief about a group of people

51、.If we use schemas to form overall impressions of others because we are cognitive misersStereotypes: group schemas, containing a set of beliefs about people in a particular social category.Origins of PrejudiceDevine (1989)Automatic activation of stereotypes.CAN be controlled, when our personal belie

52、fs (either positive or negative) of a social group are not aligned with the automatic stereotypes.StereotypeIngroup“Us- people with whom one shares a common identity.Ingroup Biastendency to favor ones own group.Origins of PrejudiceOutgroup“Them- those perceived as different or apart from ones ingrou

53、p.ConflictConflict : perceived incompatibility 不协调of actions, goals, or ideas.Origins of PrejudiceIntergroup Conflict TheoryWhen groups are forced to compete for scarce珍贵的 resources (e.g., good jobs, nice homes, college educations), they threaten each other in a very negative manner.Our group is bet

54、ter than yours becomes justification 为辩白for greater access to these positive resources.Origins of PrejudiceOrigins of PrejudiceSocial Trap 社会陷阱a situation in which the conflicting parties, by each rationally pursuing their self-interest, become caught in mutually 彼此destructive破坏性的 behavior.Origins o

55、f PrejudiceSocial trapby pursuing our self-interest and not trusting others, we can end up losers.OptimaloutcomeProbableoutcomePerson 1Choose A Choose BPerson 2Choose B Choose AScapegoat Theory 替罪羊theory that prejudice provides an outlet 出路for anger by providing someone to blame .源自一个宗教典故。在基督教的?圣经?旧

56、约?中说，上帝为了考验亚伯拉罕的忠诚，叫他带着他的独生子以撒到一个指定的地方，并把以撒杀了作燔祭，献给上帝。正当亚伯拉罕要拿刀杀他的儿子时，有个天使加以阻止，说：“现在我知道你是敬畏上帝的了，前面林子里有一只羊，你可用它来祭献上帝。于是，亚伯拉罕便把小树林中的那只山羊抓来杀了，代替他的儿子献给燔祭。Origins of PrejudiceJust-World Phenomenon 公正世界现象tendency of people to believe the world is just 公正的.people get what they deserve and deserve what they

57、 get.人们之所以对社会不公漠不关心，并不是因为他们不关心正义，而是因为他们眼中看不到不公正。Origins of PrejudiceVivid cases (9/11 terrorists) feed stereotypesSocial RelationsTypes of PrejudiceHindsight biasI am biased because I knew it all along.事后聪明偏差(hindsight bias) 指后见判断可得益于事件结果反响的判断与先见判断不知晓事件结果时的判断的系统差异。 人们在事后想的时候总有一种偏见,也有学者们称之为“回忆偏见。人们在回

58、忆一件事时,往往因为结果最后发生了，就由此断定在当时该结果发生的概率就非常大的,没有考虑到这一结果是当时决策人违反了注意义务 。Types of PrejudiceRepresentativeness biasI am biased because I put you in a category in which you may or may not belong.代表性偏差是指这样一种认知倾向：人们喜欢把事物分为典型的几个类别，然后在对事件进行概率估计时，过分强调这种典型类别的重要性，而不顾其他潜在可能性的证据。如大多数投资人坚信好公司就是好股票，这就是一种代表性偏差。投资者将好公司的股票认

59、同为好股票。其实好公司的股票价格过高时就成了坏股票，坏公司的股票价格过低也就成了好股票。Types of PrejudiceAnchoring锚 biasI am biased because of a small detail that throws off the big picture of the thing. 锚定偏差指的是人们在对某人某事做出判断时，易受第一印象或第一信息支配，就像沉入海底的锚一样把人们的思想固定在某处。两家卖粥的小店，效劳质量和顾客的数量都差不多，但总是一家粥店的销售额高于另一家。原来效益好的那家粥店的效劳员为客人盛好粥后，总问： “加一个鸡蛋还是两个？而另一家粥

60、店的效劳员总问：“加不加鸡蛋？接收到第一个问题的客人考虑的是加几个鸡蛋的问题，而接收到第二个问题的客人考虑的是加不加鸡蛋的问题。考虑的问题不同，答案自然也不同。通过不同的提问方式，第一家粥店不知不觉地多卖了鸡蛋，增加了销售。Types of PrejudiceAvailability biasI am biased toward the first example that comes to mind.可获得性偏差是指人们在形成判断的过程中往往会根据可记忆的、明显的和常见的例子和证据进行判断，即使是在他们拥有有关的信息的情况下也是如此。比方，很多的商品广告就是在强化人们对某种商品的熟悉和认知程