WTO概论复习资料

精品文档精品文档..Let’sTalkaboutTradePolicyandTradeIssuesMD,whoelse?IPreliminaryKnowledgeTariffSpecific从量关税）Weight,quantity,volumeAdValorem从价关税）ApercentageofthepriceCompound复合关税）AmixtureofspecifictariffandadvaloremtariffNon-tariffQuotaLicense（进口许可证）Generallicenseandspecificlicense;usuallycombinedwithquota,biddingCustomValuationTechnicalBarriersEnvironmentissuesGMO（GeneticallyModifiedOrganism，转基因生物）VER&VIEVER(VoluntaryExportRestriction)VIE(VoluntaryImportExpansion)Aimingattradebalance,eitherdomesticorforeign.IIGATT&AgreementsHistoricalPerspectiveofWTOHavanaCharter(→GATT1947)Background:protectionismafterWWII,GreatDepression,needtoestablishITO(InternationalTradeOrganization);Thecharterismainlyabouttradeandcommercialpolicies,employment,economicactivities,economicreconstruction,investment,restrictivebusinesspractice;Failedtomeetsomecountries’interest,butmuchcoilliommsurvivedinGATT1947,provisionalratherthanlegal;MarrakeshAgreements(establishingWTO)TheimportanceofUruguayRoundonMarrakeshAgreementsandestablishmentofWTO;IncludingAgreementsabout[tradeincommodity,GATS,TRIPs],DSU(UnderstandingonRulesandProceduresGoverningtheSettlementDisputes),TPRM,PTA(PlurilateralTradeAgreements);Enteredintoforceon1Jan.1995,128signatories;160memberssince26Jun.2014GATT1947BasicPrinciplesofWTONondiscrimination(MFN,NT),GraduationClauseTradeLiberalization(tariff,non-tariff,marketaccess)TransparenceFairCompetitionMFNclause---ArticleIMost-Favored-NationTreatment(MFN):anyadvantage,favor,privilegeorimmunitygrantedbyanycontractingpartytoanyproductshallbeaccordedimmediatelyandunconditionallytothelikeproductofallothercontractingparties;Accordthebasicprinciples,nondiscrimination,promotetradeliberalizationasit’sMultilateral;Exceptions:GSP,FTA,Anti-dumping.safetyissues,etc.China’sbenefits:double-edgedsword;NationalTreatment---ArticleIIINationalTreatmentonInternalTaxationandRegulation:thecontractingpartiesshouldtreatimportedproductsanddomesticproductsequallyintermsofinternaltaxesand/orotherinternalcharges,laws,regulations,andExceptions:governmentprocurement,domesticsubsidies,etc.PreferencePolicyandNT:dependingondifferentindustries;Anti-dumping---ArticleVIDumping:productsofonecountryareexportedtoanothercountryatalessthanthenormalvalue,andiscausesorthreatensmaterialinjurytotheimporter’sindustry;“normalvalue”isdefinedbythecomparableprice,intheordinarycourseoftrade,forthelikeproductforconsumptionintheexportingcountry;orifdomesticpricenotavailable:thehighestcomparablepriceforthelikeproductexportedtoathirdcountry,orthecostoftheproductplusareasonableadditionalforsellingandprofit;Determinantsindumping:DumpingMarginandMaterialInjuryRuleofOrigin(RoO)---ArticleIXMarksofOrigin:marks,characters,patterns,etc.thatindicatetheoriginalcountry/regionofanimportedproductorservice;Article7:contractingpartiescooperatetominimizethedifficulties,andpreventmisrepresentofthetrueorigin;Determiningoriginandwhether“substantialtransformation”:value-added,processtest,changeintariffclassification(CTC);Controversialissueontradebalance:differentstandardstodetermineandprocessingtrade;MFNornotdeterminedbytheoriginoftheproduct;AdministrationofTradeRegulations---ArticleXPublication:laws,regulations,judicialdecisionsandadministrativerulingsofgeneralapplicationaboutinternationaltrade(e.g.customclassificationandvaluation,ratesofduty/taxes,requirements,restrictions,etc.)shallbepublishedpromptlytoenabletradersbecomeacquaintedwiththem;Administration:contractingpartiesshallmaintain,orinstitutejudicial,arbitral,oradministrativeprocedurestodealwithcustommatters,andadministrateregulationsinauniformandreasonableway;QRs(QuantitativeRestrictions)---ArticleXIEliminationofQRs:exceptduties,taxesorothercharges,contractingpartiesshalleliminaterestrictionsmadeeffectthroughquotas,licensesorothermeasures.Exceptions:food,agricultureorfisheriesproduct.(shortageorsurplus)GeneralExceptions---ArticleXXProtectpublicmorals;Protecthuman,animalorplantlifeorhealth;Traderelatingtogoldorsilver;Securecompliancewithlawsorregulationsconsistentwiththeprovisionsintellectualproperty);Prisonlaborproducts;Nationaltreasures;Exhaustibleresources;Intergovernmentalcommodityagreementthatareapproved;Ensureessentialdomesticquantities;Generalorlocalshortsupply;StateTradingEnterprise---ArticleXVIIContractingpartiescanestablishormaintainstateenterprises,buttheyshallinamannerconsistentwithgeneralprinciplesofnon-discriminatorytreatmentforgovernmentalmeasuresaffectingtradesbyprivatetraders;Suchenterprisesshallmakepurchasesorsalessolelyinaccordancewithcommercialconsiderations,includingprice,quality,availability,transportation,etc.Contractingpartiesshallnotprevententerprisesfromactinginaccordancetheprinciples;Subsidies---ArticleXVISubsidiesinGeneral:whengrantinganysubsidies,contractingpartiesnotifyotherpartiesinwritingoftheextent,nature,estimatedeffectandnecessity;Incaseofseriousprejudice,thecontractingpartygrantingthesubsidyshalldiscusswithotherpartiesaboutthepossibilityoflimitingthesubsidization;AdditionalProvisions:partiesshallseektoavoidtheuseofsubsidiesontheexportofprimaryproducts,orthesubsidyshallnotincreasetheparty’sequitableshareoftheworldexportinthatproduct;ImplementalMechanism---ArticleXXIVTerritorialApplication-FrontierTraffic-CustomsUnions-FreeTradeAreas,exceptionofMFNGSP(GeneralizedSystemofPreference)Betweendevelopedcountriesanddevelopingcountries;Nondiscrimination,unilateral;History:China’sreenterinGATTAnoriginalcontractingparty;Suspendeditseligibilityasacontractingpartyin1950;Taiwan:observertoin1965;China’seffortstoreenterin1986;ComplexityofChina’srelevancetoGATT1994TheframeworkofURAgreementsabout[tradeincommodity,GATS,TRIPs],DSU(UnderstandingonRulesandProceduresGoverningtheSettlementDisputes),TPRMsPTA(PlurilateralTradeAgreements);TheinitiativesofWTOPrinciples?LegalinstrumentsunderGATT1947Tariffconcession;Protocolsofaccession;WaivergrantedunderArticle25UnderstandingonParagraph1(2)ArticleIIAimsatpromotingthetransparencyoftherightsandobligations;Agreementtorecordinnationalschedules“otherdutiesorcharges”(whichshallbeexempted)leviedinadditiontotherecordedtariff,andtobindthematthelevelsprevailingatthedateestablishedintheURProtocol;UnderstandingonArticleXVIITopromotethetransparencyofenterprises’activities,contractingpartiesshallreportsuchenterprisestothecommittee,regardlessofwhetherexporthashappenedornot;Increasesurveillanceofenterprises’activitiesthroughstrongernotificationandreviewprocedures;UnderstandingonArticleXVIIIArticle18:fortheBalance-of-Payment(BOP)anddevelopmentofeconomy,especiallyforthelessdevelopedcountries,tariffprotectionandQRscanbeimposed;Theschedulefortherestrictionmeasuresonimportshallbenotifiedassoonpossible;ContractingpartiesimposingrestrictionsforBOPpurposesshalldosointheleasttrade-disruptivemanner,andshallfavorprice-basedmeasures,likesurchargesandimportdeposits,ratherthanquantitativerestrictions.AgreementisalsoonprocedureforconsultationsbyGATTBOPCommittee,aswellasfornotification.UnderstandingonArticleXXIVClarifyandreinforcethestandardandproceduresforthereviewofneworenlargedcustomunionsorFTAandfortheevaluationoftheireffectsonparties;Clarifytheproceduretobefollowedforachievinganynecessaryadjustmentintheeventofcontractingpartiesformingacustomsunionseekingtoincreaseaboundtariff;Theobligationsofcontractingpartiesinregardtomeasurestakenbyregionalorlocalgovernmentsorauthoritieswithinterritoriesarealsoclarified;OtherAgreementsAgreementonTechnicalBarriersto）NarrowTBT:processingandproductionmethodsrelatedtothecharacteristicsoftheproductitself;DilemmaonBroadTBT:needsforindustrializationvs.potentialityprotection;ThisagreementwillextendandclarifytheAgreementonTechnicalBarrierstoTradereachedintheTokyoRound.Itseekstoensurethattechnicalnegotiationsstandards,aswellastestingandcertificationprocedures,donotcreateunnecessaryobstaclestotrade.However,itrecognizesthatcountrieshavetherighttoestablishprotection,atlevelstheyconsiderappropriate,forexampleforhuman,animalorplantlifeorhealthortheenvironment,andshouldnotbepreventedfromtakingmeasuresnecessarytoensurethoselevelsofprotectionaremet.Theagreementthereforeencouragescountriestouseinternationalstandardswheretheseareappropriate,butitdoesnotrequirethemtochangetheirlevelsofprotectionasaresultofstandardization.Innovativefeaturesoftherevisedagreementarethatitcoversprocessingandproductionmethodsrelatedtothecharacteristicsoftheproductitself.Thecoverageofconformityassessmentproceduresisenlargedandthedisciplinesmademoreprecise.Notificationprovisionsapplyingtolocalgovernmentandnon-governmentalbodiesareelaboratedinmoredetailthanintheTokyoRoundagreement.ACodeofGoodPracticeforthePreparation,AdoptionandApplicationofStandardsbystandardizingbodies,whichisopentoacceptancebyprivatesectorbodiesaswellasthepublicsector,isincludedasanannextotheagreement.AgreementontheApplicationofSanitaryandPhytosanitary实施动植物卫生检疫措施协议）Specificintheprotectionofhumanhealthandecologicalbalance,AgreementonTrade-RelatedInvestment资措施协议）ThisAgreement,negotiatedduringtheUruguayRound,appliesonlytomeasuresthataffecttradeingoods.Recognizingthatcertaininvestmentmeasurescanhavetrade-restrictiveanddistortingeffects,itstatesthatnoMembershallapplyameasurethatisprohibitedbytheprovisionsofArticleIII(nationaltreatment)orArticleXI(quantitativerestrictions).Examplesofinconsistentmeasures,asspelledoutintheAnnex‘sIllustrativeList,includelocalcontentortradebalancingrequirements.TheAgreementcontainstransitionalarrangementsallowingMemberstomaintainnotifiedTRIMsforalimitedtimefollowingtheentryintoforceoftheWTO。TheAgreementalsoestablishesaCommitteeonTRIMstomonitortheoperationandimplementationofthesecommitments.Agreementon农业协议）Long-termobjectives:substantialprogressivereductioninagriculturalsupport;Adecisivemovetowardstheobjectiveofincreasedmarketorientationagriculturaltrade;TotalAMS(AggregateMeasureofSupport):coversallsupportprovidedeitheraproduct-specificornon-product-specificbasis;Marketaccess---tariffication:non-tariffbordermeasuresarereplacedbythatprovidesubstantiallysamelevelofprotection;Tariff-quota:under10%&outside80%;Domesticsupport---amber,blue,greenbox.Amberbox:Alldomesticsupportmeasuresconsideredtodistortproductionandtrade(withsomeexceptions)fallintotheamberbox,whichisdefinedinArticle6oftheAgricultureAgreementasalldomesticsupportsexceptthoseintheblueandgreenboxes.Theseincludemeasurestosupportprices,orsubsidiesdirectlyrelatedtoproductionquantities. Thesesupportsaresubjecttolimits:“deminimis”minimalsupportsareallowed(5%ofagriculturalproductionfordevelopedcountries,10%fordevelopingcountries);the30WTOmembersthathadlargersubsidiesthanthedeminimislevelsatbeginningofthepost-UruguayRoundreformperiodarecommittedtoreducethesesubsidies.BlueBox:Thisisthe“amberboxwithconditions”—conditionsdesignedtoreducedistortion.Anysupportthatwouldnormallybeintheamberbox,isplacedintheblueboxifthesupportalsorequiresfarmerstolimitproduction(detailssetoutinParagraph5ofArticle6oftheAgricultureAgreement). presenttherearenolimitsonspendingonblueboxsubsidies.Inthecurrentnegotiations,somecountrieswanttokeeptheblueboxasitisbecausetheyitasacrucialmeansofmovingawayfromdistortingamberboxsubsidieswithoutcausingtoomuchhardship.Otherswantedtosetlimitsorreductioncommitments,someadvocatingmovingthesesupportsintotheamberbox.GreenBox:Inordertoqualify,greenboxsubsidiesmustnotdistorttrade,ormostcauseminimaldistortion(paragraph1).Theyhavetobegovernment-funded(notbychargingconsumershigherprices)andmustnotinvolvepricesupport. Theytendtobeprogrammesthatarenottargetedparticularproducts,andincludedirectincomesupportsforfarmersthatarenotrelatedto(are“decoupled”from)currentproductionlevelsorprices.Theyalsoincludeenvironmentalprotectionandregionaldevelopmentprogrammes.“Greenbox”subsidiesarethereforeallowedwithoutlimits,providedtheycomplywiththepolicy-specificcriteriasetoutinAnnex2. Inthecurrentnegotiations,somecountriesarguethatsomeofthesubsidieslistedinAnnex2mightnotmeetthecriteriaoftheannex’sfirstparagraph—becauseofthelargeamountspaid,orbecauseofthenatureofthesesubsidies,thetradedistortiontheycausemightbemorethanminimal.Amongthesubsidiesunderdiscussionhereare:directpaymentstoproducers(paragraph5),includingdecoupledincomesupport(paragraph6),andgovernmentfinancialsupportforincomeinsuranceandincomesafety-netprogrammes(paragraph7),andotherparagraphs.Someothercountriestaketheoppositeview—thatthecurrentcriteriaareadequate,andmightevenneedtobemademoreflexibletotakebetteraccountofnon-tradeconcernssuchasenvironmentalprotectionandanimalwelfare.Exportcompetition:Membersarerequiredtoreducethevalueofmainlydirectexportsubsidtealevel36percentbelowthe1986-90baseperiodlevelthesix-yearimplementationperiod,andthequantityofsubsidizedexportsby21percentoverthesameperiod.AgreementonTextilesand纺织品与服装协议）MFA(MultifibreArrangement):UptotheendoftheUruguayRound,textileandclothingquotaswerenegotiatedbilaterallyandgovernedbytherulesofMultifibreArrangement(MFA).Thisprovidedfortheapplicationofselectivequantitativerestrictionswhensurgesinimportsofparticularproductscaused,orthreatenedtocause,seriousdamagetotheindustryoftheimportingcountry.TheMultifibreArrangementwasamajordeparturefromthebasicGATTrulesandparticularlytheprincipleofnon-discrimination.On1January1995itwasreplacedbytheWTOAgreementonTextilesandClothingwhichsetsoutatransitionalprocessfortheultimateremovalofthesequotas.ATC(AgreementonTextilesandClothing)isatransitionalinstrumentbuiltthefollowingkeyelements:theproductcoverage,basicallyencompassingyarns,fabrics,made-uptextileproductsandclothing;aprogrammefortheprogressiveintegrationofthesetextileclothingproductsinto1994rules;aliberalizationprocesstoprogressivelyenlargeexistingquotastheyareremoved)byincreasingannualgrowthratesateachstage;aspecialsafeguardmechanismtodealwithnewcasesofseriousdamageorthreatthereoftodomesticproducersduringthetransitionperiod;establishmentofaTextilesMonitoringBody(“TMB”)tosupervisetheimplementationoftheAgreementandensurethattherulesarefaithfullyfollowed;andotherprovisions,includingrulesoncircumventionofthequotas,theiradministration,treatmentofnon-MFArestrictions,andcommitmentsundertaken elsewhere under the WTO's agreements and affectingthissector.Securetheeventualintegrationofthetextilesandclothingsector(MFA)intoGATTonthebasisofstrengthenedrulesanddisciplinesGeneralAgreementonTradein）ForthepurposesofthisAgreement,tradeinservicesisdefinedasthesupplyaservice:fromtheterritoryofoneMemberintotheterritoryofanyotherMember;intheterritoryofoneMembertotheserviceconsumerofanyotherMember;byaservicesupplierofoneMember,throughcommercialpresenceinterritoryofanyotherMember;byaservicesupplierofoneMember,throughpresenceofnaturalpersonsaMemberintheterritoryofanyotherMember.Thescopeoftradeinservice:servicessuppliedfromtheterritoryofonepartytotheterritoryofanother(ernationaltelephonecalls),officiallyknownas“cross-bordersupply”servicessuppliedintheterritoryofonepartytotheconsumersofanyother(forexample,tourism);),officially“consumptionabroad”servicesprovidedthroughthepresenceofserviceprovidingentitiesofpartyintheterritoryofanyother(forexample,banking)(e.g.foreignbankssettingupoperationsinacountry),officially“commercialpresence”individualstravellingfromtheirowncountrytosupplyservicesinanother(e.g.fashionmodelsorconsultants),officially“presenceofnaturalpersons”AgreementonTrade-RelatedAspectsofIntellectualProperty与贸易有关的知识产权协议）CopyrightandRelatedRightsTrad