考研考博-英语-呼伦贝尔职业技术学院押题密卷附带答案详解篇2

书山有路勤为径，学海无涯苦作舟！住在富人区的她考研考博-英语-呼伦贝尔职业技术学院押题密卷附带答案详解（图片大小可自由调整）全文为Word可编辑，若为PDF皆为盗版，请谨慎购买！第壹套一.全考点押题密卷-综合训练(共50题)1.单选题

Wehavedoneallwecouldandnowourcherishedprojectis（

）ournewCEO.

问题1选项

A.ontheagendaof

B.inthepowerof

C.undertheguidanceof

D.withtheguidanceof

【答案】B

【解析】考查词组辨析。A选项ontheagendaof“列入会议议程的”；B选项inthepowerof“受……支配，在……的控制下”；C选项undertheguidanceof“在……的指导下”；D选项withtheguidanceof“在……的指导下”，作伴随状语表原因。由project（项目）与CEO（执行总裁）之间的关系可知项目应处于CEO的控制下较符合逻辑搭配。句意：我们已经竭尽所能，现在我们珍视的项目掌握在新任CEO的手中。

2.翻译题

ReadthefollowingParagraphcarefullyandthentranslateitintoChinese.

Theperiodofadolescence,i.e.，theperiodbetweenchildhoodandadulthood,maybelongorshort,dependingonsocialexpectationsandonsociety’sdefinitionastowhatconstitutesmaturityandadulthood.Inprimitivesocietiesadolescenceisfrequentlyarelativelyshortperiodoftime,whileinindustrialsocietieswithpatternsofprolongededucationcoupledwithlawsagainstchildlabor,theperiodofadolescenceismuchlongerandmayincludemostoftheseconddecadeofone’slife.Furthermore，thelengthoftheadolescentperiodandthedefinitionofadulthoodstatusmaychangeinagivensocietyassocialandeconomicconditionschange.Examplesofthistypeofchangearethedisappearanceofthefrontierinthelatterpartofthe19thcenturyintheUnitedStates,andmoreuniversally,theindustrializationofanagriculturalsociety.

【答案】青春期，即从童年到成年之间的这段时期，可能很长，也可能很短，这取决于社会的期望和社会对什么是成熟和成年的定义。在原始社会，青春期往往是相对较短的一段时间，而在人们受教育时间较长的工业社会，再加上反对童工的法律，青春期的时间要长得多，可能包括人生第二个十年的大部分时间。此外，随着社会和经济条件的变化，在特定社会中，青春期的长度和成年身份的定义可能会发生变化。这类变化的例子如：19世纪后半叶美国边疆的消失，更普遍的是农业社会的工业化。

3.单选题

Whatwecallnatureis,______,thesumofthechangesmadebyallthevariouscreaturesandnaturalforcesintheirintricateactionsandinfluencesuponeachotherandupontheirplaces.

问题1选项

A.incommonsense

B.fromasense

C.bythesense

D.inasense

【答案】D

【解析】【选项释义】

A.incommonsense普通常识B.fromasense从一种感觉

C.bythesense凭感觉D.inasense在某种意义上

【考查点】插入语。

【解题思路】分析句子可知，句子结构意义完整，而空格处位于系动词和表语之间，且用逗号隔开，可推知空格处填入一个插入语，按照句意“我们所称的自然，______，就是一切不同的生物和自然力在其相互作用和相互影响的过程中所发生的变化的总和”可知，空格处填入D项符合句意，故该题选择D项。

【干扰项排除】A、B、C项都不符合句意。

【句意】从某种意义上说，我们所称的自然，就是一切不同的生物和自然力在其相互作用和相互影响的过程中所发生的变化的总和。

4.单选题

Anauctionisusuallyadvertisedbeforehandwithfullparticularsofarticlestobesoldandwhereandwhentheycanbeviewedby（）buyers.

问题1选项

A.perspective

B.prospective

C.prosperous

D.prevalent

【答案】B

【解析】考查形容词辨析。A选项perspective“透视的”；B选项prospective“潜在的；预期的”；C选项prosperous“繁荣的；兴旺的”；D选项prevalent“流行的；普遍的”。句意：拍卖通常事先做广告，详细说明要出售的物品以及……买家何时何地可以看到这些物品。拍卖会前提前打好广告，目的是想要有意向的买家注意到物品，从而参与进来。所以这里是指潜在的买家。因此B选项符合题意。

5.单选题

Itwasobviousthatsheandherhusbandwere（）andshewishedshe'dnevermarriedhim.

问题1选项

A.insolvable

B.insensible

C.inseparable

D.incompatible

【答案】D

【解析】句意:很明显她和她丈夫是水火不相容的，她希望自己从来没有嫁给他。

考查形容词辨析。insolvable不能解决（答）的;insensible昏迷的，无知觉的；inseparable不可分离的；incompatible不相容的，矛盾的。根据后半句“她希望自己从来没有嫁给他”可知D符合句意。

6.单选题

Doctorssaythatmoderatedrinkingcanhaveabeneficial（）onyourhealth.

问题1选项

A.impact

B.generation

C.disposition

D.dependence

【答案】A

【解析】名词词义辨析。impact“影响”;generation“一代，产生”;disposition“性情，处置”;dependence“独立”。句意：医生说适当喝酒对你的健康有有利影响。选项A符合题意。

7.单选题

Thenewsecretaryhaswrittenaremarkably（

）reportonlyinafewpagesbutwithallthedetailsincluded.

问题1选项

A.concise

B.clear

C.precise

D.elaborate

【答案】A

【解析】根据后半句：只用了简短的几页但却涵盖了所有的细节，说明这个报告简洁明了，选项A最符合语境。

8.单选题

ThesummersessioninGeorgetownUniversitywasareallywonderfuloccasionwhichwewill（

）formanyyearstocome.

问题1选项

A.discount

B.acquit

C.cherish

D.blur

【答案】C

【解析】考察动词词义辨析。discount“打折扣”；acquit“无罪释放”；cherish“珍惜”；blur“使……模糊不清”。句意：乔治敦大学暑期班是个很棒的场合，我们将在今后的许多年里都会珍惜它。选项C符合题意。

9.单选题

Thetruckdriverwasfinedforexceedingthespeed（

）.

问题1选项

A.range

B.limit

C.rule

D.regulation

【答案】B

【解析】考察名词词义辨析。range“范围”；limit“限制界限”；rule“规定，规则”；regulation意为“规定，规则”。句意：卡车司机由于超速而被罚了款。选项B符合题意。

10.单选题

ManyliterarydetectiveshaveporedoveragreatpuzzleconcerningthewriterMarcelProust:whathappenedin1909?HowdidContreSaint-Beuve,anessayattackingthemethodsofthecriticSaintBeuve,turnintothestartofthenovelRemembranceofThingsPast"!ArecentlypublishedletterfromProusttotheeditorValletteconfirmsthatFallois,theeditorofthe1954editionofContreSaint-Beuve,madeanessentiallycorrectguessabouttherelationshipoftheessaytothenovel.FalloisproposedthatProusthadtriedtobeginanovelin1908,abandoneditforwhatwastobealongdemonstrationofSaint-Beuve'sblindnesstotherealnatureofgreatwriting,foundtheessaygivingrisetopersonalmemoriesandfictionaldevelopments,andallowedthesetotakeoverinasteadilydevelopingnovel.

DraftpassagesinProust's1909notebooksindicatethatthetransitionfromessaytonovelbeganinContreSaint-Beuve,whenProustintroducedseveralexamplestoshowthepowerfulinfluencethatinvoluntarymemoryexertsoverthecreativeimagination.Ineffect,intryingtodemonstratethattheimaginationismoreprofoundandlesssubmissivetotheintellectthanSaint-Beuveassumed,Proustelicitedvitalmemoriesofhisownand,findingsubtleconnectionsbetweenthem,begantoamassthematerialforRemembrance.ByAugust,ProustwaswritingtoVallette,informinghimofhisintentiontodevelopthematerialasanovel.MauriceBardeche,inMarcelProust,Romancier,hasshowntheimportanceinthedraftsofRemembranceofspontaneousandapparentlyrandomassociationsofProust'ssubconscious.AsincidentsandreflectionsoccurredtoProust,hecontinuallyinsertednewpassagesalteringandexpandinghisnarrative.Buthefounditdifficulttocontrolthedriftofhisinspiration.Theveryrichnessandcomplexityofthemeaningfulrelationshipsthatkeptpresentingandrearrangingthemselvesonalllevels,fromabstractintelligencetoprofounddreamyfeelings,madeitdifficultforProusttosetthemoutcoherently.Thebeginningofcontrolcamewhenhesawhowtoconnectthebeginningandtheendofhisnovel.

IntriguedbyProust'sclaimthathehad"begunandfinished"Remembranceatthesametime,HenriBonnetdiscoveredthatpartsofRemembrance'slastbookwereactuallystartedin1909.Alreadyinthatyear,Prousthaddrafteddescriptionsofhisnovel'scharactersintheiroldagethatwouldappearinthefinalbookofRemembrance,wherethepermanenceofartissetagainsttheravagesoftime.ThelettertoVallette,draftsoftheessayandnovel,andBonnet'sresearchesestablishinbroadoutlinetheprocessbywhichProustgeneratedhisnoveloutoftheruinsofhisessay.Butthoseofuswhohoped,withKolb,thatKolb'snewlypublishedcompleteeditionofProust'scorrespondencefor1909woulddocumenttheprocessingreaterdetailaredisappointed.ForuntilProustwasconfidentthathewasatlastinsightofaviablestructureforRemembrance,hetoldfewcorrespondentsthathewasproducinganythingmoreambitiousthanContreSaint-Beuve.

1.Thepassageisprimarilyconcernedwith（）

2.Itcanbeinferredfromthepassagethatallofthefollowingareliterarydetectiveswhohavetried,bymeansofeitherscholarshiporcriticism,tohelpsolvethe"greatpuzzle"mentionedinLine1EXCEPT（）

3.Accordingtothepassage,indraftsofContreSaint-BeuveProustsetouttoshowthatSaint-Beuvemadewhichofthefollowingmistakesasacritic?

I.Saint-Beuvemadenoefforttostudythedevelopmentofanovelthroughitsdraftsandrevisions.

II.Saint-Beuveassignedtoogreataroleinthecreativeprocesstoawriter'sconsciousintellect.

III.Saint-Beuveconcentratedtoomuchonplotsandnotenoughonimageryandotherelementsofstyle.

4.Whichofthefollowingbeststatestheauthor'sattitudetowardtheinformationthatscholarshavegatheredaboutProust'swritingin1909?

5.TheauthorofthepassageimpliesthatwhichofthefollowingwouldbetheLEASTusefulsourceofinformationaboutProust'stransitionfromworkingonContreSaint-BeuvetohavingaviablestructureforRemembranceofThingsPast?

问题1选项

A.theroleofinvoluntarymemoryinProust'swriting

B.evidenceconcerningthegenesisofProust'snovelRemembranceofThingsPast

C.conflictingscholarlyopinionsaboutthevalueofstudyingthedraftsofRemembranceofThingsPast

D.Proust'scorrespondenceandwhatitrevealsaboutRemembranceofThingsPast

问题2选项

A.Bardeche

B.Bonnet

C.Fallois

D.Vallette

问题3选项

A.IIonly

B.IIIonly

C.IandIIonly

D.I,II,andIII

问题4选项

A.TheauthorisdisappointedthatnonewdocumentshavecometolightsinceFallois'sspeculations.

B.Theauthorisdissatisfiedbecausetherearetoomanygapsandinconsistenciesinthedrafts.

C.TheauthorisconfidentthatFallois's1954guesshasbeenprovedlargelycorrect,butregretsthatstillmoredetaileddocumentationconcerningProust'stransitionfromtheessaytothenovelhasnotemerged.

D.TheauthorissatisfiedthatFallois'sjudgmentwaslargelycorrect,butfeelsthatProust'searlyworkindesigningandwritingthenovelwasprobablyfarmoredeliberatethanFallois'sdescriptionoftheprocesswouldsuggest.

问题5选项

A.Fallois'scommentsinthe1954editionofContreSaint-Beuve.

B.Proust's1909notebooks,includingthedraftsofRemembranceofThingsPast.

C.Proust's1909correspondence,excludingthelettertoVallette.

D.Bardeche'sMarcelProust,Romancier.

【答案】第1题:B

第2题:D

第3题:A

第4题:C

第5题:C

【解析】第1题:主旨思想题。文章首段提及许多文学考据家思考着一个涉及马塞尔·普鲁斯特（MarcelProust）的不解之谜：1909年究竟发生了什么？《驳圣伯夫》一文——一篇抨击批评家圣伯夫批评方法的论文——是如何转变成为小说《追忆似水年华》的开端的？之后段落试图找到《驳圣伯夫》这篇论文是如何转化为小说《追忆似水年华》的答案，由此可知，文章主要在论述小说《追忆似水年华》产生的证据。故答案为B。

第2题:事实细节题。文中首段提及Fallois就论文与小说之间的关系做了一种本质上正确的猜测。第二段提及MauriceBardeche在《马塞尔·普鲁斯特——小说家》中,证明了在《追忆似水年华》草稿中普鲁斯特的潜意识里那些自发的不规则的联结的重要性。第三段提及HenriBonnet（亨利·博内）揭示，小说最后一卷的某些章节确实始于1909年。而选项D中提及的Vallette，只是普鲁斯特致编辑瓦莱特（Vallette）的信函，并没有对小说做考究。故答案为D。

第3题:信息推断题。第一个说法明显错误，文中没有提及要通过手稿研究小说发展；第三个提到的plots，在文中也没有提及。文章首段"Saint-Beuve'sblindnesstotherealnatureofgreatwriting"提及圣伯夫长期以来对伟大文学作品的真正本质盲目无知。与文中提及的"过度强调创意的过程而忽略了作家的有意识的智慧"意义相符。故答案为A。

第4题:信息推断题。根据最后一段的倒数第二句“Kolb'snewlypublishedcompleteeditionofProust'scorrespondencefor1909woulddocumenttheprocessingreaterdetailaredisappointed.”科尔布新出版的《普鲁斯特1909年书信全集》将更详细地记录这一过程，但因细节没有呈现让人很失望。选项C符合原文。

第5题:细节推断题。文章主要探讨《驳圣伯夫》一文——一篇抨击批评家圣伯夫批评方法的论文是如何转变成为小说《追忆似水年华》的开端的？作者主要给出了3个证据。选项A与第一段中的"ArecentlypublishedletterfromProusttotheeditorValletteconfirmsthat..."信息对应；选项B与第二段中的"Proust's1909notebooksindicatethat..."信息对应；选项D与"MauriceBardeche,inMarcelProust,romancier,hasshowntheimportance..."信息对应；选项C将写给Vallette的信排除在外，与文章第一段中的"ArecentlypublishedletterfromProusttotheeditorValletteconfirmsthatFallois"信息不符。故答案为C。

11.单选题

Insomewaystheyareamarketers’dream.Theyhavebillionsofdollarsindiscretionaryincome—andspendmostofit.Althoughtheirindividualpurchasesaresmall，theybuyregularly,oftenresponsetopeerpressure.Theyareheavilyinfluencedbythehoursoftelevisionadvertisingtheyseeeachweek.And，asaresultoftoday’ssmallerfamilies,andtheincreaseinthenumberoftwo-incomehouseholds,theyhavemoretosayaboutfamilydecisionsthaneverbefore.

“They”arechildren,ofcourse,agroupwhosespendinghabitsareattractingtheattentionofmoreandmoremarketers.Onerecentstudyestimatesthat:thethirtymillionU.S.children4to12yearsoldreceiveabout$4.7billionannuallyfromallowances,giftsandoddjobs.Ofthatamount,theyspendatotalof$4.2billioneachyearonsnacks($1.4billion),toysandgames($1.1billion),moviesandsports($771million),videogames($766million),andgifts($164million),engaginginsome280independentpurchasestransactionsannually.Childrenthirteentonineteenaccountforevengreateryearlyexpenditures:$30.5billionoftheirownmoney.

Butchildren’sfinancialmuscledoesnotendthere.Researchersestimatethatchildrendirectlyinfluencemore-than$40billioninadultpurchaseseachyear.ANickeldeonUSAToday/YankelovichYouthMonitorstudyfoundthatchildrenareextremelyawareofbrandandhaveconsiderableinputintotheirparents，selectionofapparel,cereal,snacks,cars,televisionsandpersonalcomputers.Manychildrenareinvolvedinactualhouseholdpurchasing,especiallyfood；inarecentTeenageResearchstudy,halftheteengirlssurveyedreportedshoppingforgroceriesatleastonceaweek.Recognizingthisindirectpurchasingpowerthatchildrenhave，agrowingnumberofmarketersareapproachingtheyouthdirectly.TheNationalDairyBoard,forexample,nowairsmilkcommercialswithyouthappeal,andProcter&GamblehasdevelopedCrestforKidstoothpaste.

Howdidchildrenacquiresuchbuyingclout?Researcherspointtoseveralfactors.Asthenumberofworkingcouplesandsingle-parenthouseholdsincreased,manyparentsshiftedcertainhouseholdresponsibilitiesontochildren’sshoulders.Thrustintoadultroles,childrenhaveendedupwithmoreinfluenceoverthefamily’spurchases,andtheyalsotendtospendincreasedamountsofmoneythemselves.Inaddition,manyolder,professionalcoupleshavefewerchildren.Theseparentscanaffordtolavishmoreontheirchildren,includingextraspendingmoneyforsuchitemsasFisher-PriceToys’$225children’scamcorderandtheMyFirstSonylineofelectronicsgearforchildren.Thebandwagoneffectisyetanotherfactor.Whenonemarketerbeginstofocusonchildren,competitorsfollowsuit,encouragingevenmorechildren’spurchases.McDonald’sCorp.,forexample,hasaimedadvertisementsforitshamburgers,mealkits,andpartiesatchildrenforyears；nowHardee’sFoodSystems,Inc,andWendy’sInternationalInc,aredoingthesame.

Astutemarketersrealizethatchildrenactuallyrepresentthreemarkets:currentconsumers,influentialconsumers,andfuturebuyers.Becausechildrenaresteadilydevelopingbrandawareness,andproductpreferencesthatsomedaywilltranslateintopurchasingdecisions,evencompaniesnotsellingyouthproductspersearebeginningtopayattentiontoselldirectlytochildren,realizingthat,outtheresomewhere,tomorrow’sbig-ticketcustomerisplayingvideogamestoday.

1.Thetopicofthisselectionis（）.

2.Whichofthefollowingisthemainideaofthisselection?

3.Fromthestatementthatchildren“havebillionsofdollarsindiscretionaryincome—andspendmostofit”，wecaninferthatchildren（）.

4.Abouttheirbuyingbehaviors,wecaninferthatchildrenare（）.

5.Wecaninferthatmarketersbelievechildrenwhodevelop“brandawareness”whentheyareyoungwill（）.

问题1选项

A.marketingproducts

B.children’sspendingpatterns

C.doingsurveysofchildren

D.thebandwagoneffect

问题2选项

A.Childrenhavemoretosayaboutfamilypurchasedecisionsthaneverbefore.

B.Childrenareimportantmembersofsociety.

C.Childrenhaveagooddealofpowerasbuyersandconsumers.

D.Marketersareovercomingtheirlackofinterestinsellingtochildren.

问题3选项

A.havenosenseofvalueregardingmoney

B.shouldnotbegivensomuchmoneybytheirparents

C.misusethefinancialpowerplacedintheirhands

D.donotsavemuchoftheirownmoney

问题4选项

A.notinfluencedmuchbyadvertising

B.verymuchinfluencedbytheirfriends

C.notinfluencedbymilkcommercialswithyouthappeal

D.carefulaboutspendingonhamburgersandotherfastfoods

问题5选项

A.rejectthosebrandswhenbecomeadults

B.purchasevideogamesfortheirchildren

C.remainloyaltothosebrandsintoadulthood

D.spendtheirmoneywiselyandthoughtfullyasadults

【答案】第1题:B

第2题:C

第3题:C

第4题:B

第5题:C

【解析】第1题:文章第一二段提到儿童群体虽然不大，但是他们有一定的购买能力；之后引用了一些儿童带来的花费的数据来进一步说明儿童是个很大的消费群体。最后提到儿童代表着三个市场。从这些可知全文都是在讲儿童的消费问题。所以选项B符合题意。

第2题:文章主要探讨儿童消费问题。出于很多原因，儿童已经是一个具有很强购买力的消费者。选项C符合题意。

第3题:文章第一段提到孩子们有很多零花钱自己处理，但是他们容易受到电视广告的影响（Theyareheavilyinfluencedbythehoursoftelevisionadvertisingtheyseeeachweek），说明他们的钱被乱用了，选项C符合题意。

第4题:文章第一段提到虽然儿童的购买力不强，但是他们会受同伴的影响（Althoughtheirindividualpurchasesaresmall，theybuyregularly,oftenresponsetopeerpressure）。选项B符合题意。

第5题:文章最后一段提到商家们认为儿童代表三个市场：currentconsumers,influentialconsumers,andfuturebuyers。孩子们的品牌意识和产品偏好正稳定发展，总有一天会形成购买力。选项C符合题意。

12.单选题

Toalleviatetheproblemofcontaminatedchicken,theexpertsrecommendthatthegovernmentshiftitsinspectionemphasisfromcursorybird-by-birdvisualchecktoamore______randomsamplingforbacterialandchemicalcontamination.

问题1选项

A.rigorous

B.perfunctory

C.symbolic

D.discreet

【答案】A

【解析】考查形容词辨析。A选项rigorous“严格的，严厉的；严密的；严酷的”；B选项perfunctory“敷衍的；马虎的；得过且过的”；C选项symbolic“象征的；符号的；使用符号的”；D选项discreet“谨慎的；小心的”。句意：为缓解鸡的污染问题，专家们建议政府把检查重点从走马观花式的肉眼检查改为进行更为______的对细菌和化学污染进行随机取样检查。根据shift“改变”可知，横线处应填一个与cursory“粗略的”意思相反的词。且由检查重点从肉眼检查到改进为对细菌和化学污染随机取样检查，可知检查推向深入，较以前更加严格，A选项rigorous“严格的”符合题意。因此A选项正确。

13.单选题

Manyofthesuccessfulmen,hadtheybeenabletochooseforthemselves,wouldhaveselectedsomequitedifferentprofessions（）theyhavemadefortunes.

问题1选项

A.fromthatinwhich

B.fromwhich

C.inwhich

D.fromwhat

【答案】A

【解析】fromthatinwhich相当于(differentprofession)fromtheprofessionsinwhichtheymakefortunesinsth“靠……致富”。只有A正确。

14.单选题

Agriculturewasastepinhumanprogress（

）whichsubsequentlytherewasnotanythingcomparableuntilourownmachineage.

问题1选项

A.in

B.for

C.to

D.from

【答案】C

【解析】介词辨析题。分析句子结构可知，这里是由which引导的定语从句，先行词是agriculture，填空处应该填入一个和comparable搭配的介词，只有介词to能与之搭配，意为“可比较的，比得上是”，所以选项C正确。

15.单选题

Duringperiodsofsocialstability,manyartacademiesaresofirmlycontrolledbydogmatiststhatallrealcreativeworkmustbedonebythe（

）.

问题1选项

A.elite

B.disenfranchised

C.reactionaries

D.dissatisfied

【答案】B

【解析】考查形容词及名词辨析。elite“精英；精华”；disenfranchised“被剥夺权利的”，thedisenfranchised“被剥夺权利的人”；reactionaries“反动派”；dissatisfied“不满意的；不高兴的”。句意：在社会稳定时期，很多艺术学院被教条主义者牢牢地控制，以至所有真正有创意的作品必须由那些被剥夺了权利的人完成。由“controlledbydogmatists被教条主义者控制”及“realcreativework真正有创意的作品”的对应知“真正有创意的作品都是由艺术学院里被剥夺了权利的人来完成。被教条主义控制意味着被剥夺了权利。

16.单选题

SectionA

Theroleofgovernmentsinenvironmentalmanagementisdifficultbutinescapable.Sometimes,thestatetriestomanagetheresourcesitowns,anddoessobadly.Often,however,governmentsactinanevenmoreharmfulway.Theyactuallysubsidizetheexploitationandconsumptionofnaturalresources.Awholerangeofpolicies,fromfarmpricesupporttoprotectionforcoal-mining,doenvironmentaldamageand(often)makenoeconomicsense.Scrappingthemoffersatwo-foldbonus:acleanerenvironmentandamoreefficienteconomy.Growthandenvironmentalismcanactuallygohandinhand,ifpoliticianshavethecouragetocontrolthevestedinterestthatsubsidiescreate.

SectionB

Noactivityaffectsmoreoftheearth’ssurfacethanfarming.Itshapesathirdoftheplanet’slandarea,notcountingAntarctica,andtheproportionisrising.Worldfoodoutputperheadhasrisenby4percentbetweenthe1970sand1980smainlyasaresultofincreasesinyieldsfromlandalreadyincultivation,butalsobecausemorelandhasbeenbroughtundertheplough.Higheryieldshavebeenachievedbyincreasedirrigation,bettercropbreeding,andadoublingintheuseofpesticidesandchemicalfertilizersinthe1970sand1980s.

SectionC

Alltheseactivitiesmayhavedamagingenvironmentimpacts.Forexample,landclearingforagricultureisthelargestsinglecauseofdeforestation;chemicalfertilizersandpesticidesmaycontaminatewatersupplies;moreintensivefarmingandtheabandonmentoffallowperiodstendtoexacerbatesoilerosion;andthespreadofmonocultureanduseofhigh-yieldingvarietiesofcropshavebeenaccompaniedbythedisappearanceofoldvarietiesoffoodplantswhichmighthaveprovidedsomeinsuranceagainstpestsofdiseasesinfuture.Soilerosionthreatenstheproductivityoflandinbothrichandpoorcountries.TheUnitedState,wherethemostcarefulmeasurementshavebeendone,discoveredin1982thataboutone-fifthofitsfarmlandwaslosingtopsoilataratelikelytodiminishthesoil’sproductivity.Thecountrysubsequentlyembarkeduponaprogramtoconvert11percentofitscroppedlandtomeadoworforest.TopsoilinIndiaandChinaisvanishingmuchfasterthanAmerica.

SectionD

Governmentpolicieshavefrequentlycompoundedtheenvironmentaldamagethatfarmingcancause.Intherichcountries,subsidiesforgrowingcropsandpricesupportsforfarmoutputdriveupthepriceofland.Theannualvalueofthesesubsidiesisimmense;about$250billion,ormorethanallWorldBanklendinginthe1980s.Toincreasetheoutputofcropsperacre,afarmer’seasiestoptionistousemoreofthemostreadilyavailableinputs:fertilizersandpesticides.FertilizerusedoubledinDenmarkintheperiod1960-1985andincreasedinTheNetherlandsby150percent.Thequantityofpesticidesappliedhasrisentoo:by69percentin1975-1984inDenmark,forexample,withariseof115percentinthefrequencyofapplicationinthethreeyearsfrom1981.

Inthelate1980sandearly1990ssomeeffortsweremadetoreducefarmsubsidies.ThemostdramaticexamplewasthatofNewZealand,whichscrappedmostfarmsupportin1984.Astudyoftheenvironmentaleffects,conductedin1993,foundthattheendoffertilizersubsidieshadbeenfollowedbyafallinfertilizeruse(afallcompoundedbythedeclineinworldcommodityprices,whichcutfarmincomes).Theremovalofsubsidiesalsostoppedland-cleaningandover-stocking,whichinthepasthadbeentheprincipalcausesoferosion.Farmsbegantodiversify.Theonekindofsubsidywhoseremovalappearedtohavebeenbadfortheenvironmentwassubsidytomanagesoilerosion.

Inlessenlightenedcountries,andintheEuropeanUnion,thetrendhasbeentoreduceratherthaneliminatesubsidies,andtointroducenewpaymentstoencouragefarmerstotreattheirlandinenvironmentallyfriendlierways,ortoleaveitfallow.Itmaysoundstrangebutsuchpaymentsneedtobehigherthantheexistingincentivesforfarmerstogrowfoodcrops.Farmers,however,dislikebeingpaidtodonothing.Inseveralcountries,theyhavebecomeinterestedinthepossibilityofusingfuelproducedfromcropresidueseitherasareplacementforpetrol(asethanol)orasfuelforpowerstations(asbiomass).Suchfuelsproducefarlesscarbondioxidethancoaloroil,andabsorbcarbondioxideastheygrow.Theyarethereforelesslikelytocontributetothegreenhouseeffect.Buttheyarerarelycompetitivewithfossilfuelsunlesssubsidizedandgrowingthemdoesnolessenvironmentalharmthanothercrops.

SectionE

Inpoorcountries,governmentsaggravateothersortsofdamage.Subsidiesforpesticidesandartificialfertilizersencouragefarmerstousegreaterquantitiesthanareneededtogetthehighesteconomiccropyield.AstudybytheinternationalRiceResearchinstituteofpesticideusebyfarmersinSouthEastAsiafoundthat,withpest-resistantvarietiesofrice,evenmoderateapplicationsofpesticidefrequentlycostfarmersmorethantheysaved.Suchwasteputsfarmersonachemicaltreadmill:bugsandweedsbecomeresistanttopoisons,sonextyear’spoisonsmustbemorelethal.Onecostistohumanhealth.Everyyearsome10,000peoplediefrompesticidepoisoning,almostalloftheminthedevelopingcountries,andanother400,000becomeseriouslyill.Asforartificialfertilizers,theiruseworld-wideincreasedby40percentperunitoffarmedlandbetweenthemid1970sandlate1980s,mostlyinthedevelopingcountries.Overuseoffertilizersmaycausefarmerstostoprotatingcropsorleavingtheirlandfallow.That,inturn,maymakesoilerosionworse.

SectionF

AresultoftheUruguayRoundofworldtradenegotiationsislikelytobeareductionof36percentintheaveragelevelsoffarmsubsidiespaidbytherichcountriesin1986-1990.Someoftheworld’sfoodproductionwi