北大光华组织与管理课件

Chapter2MANAGEMENTYESTERDAYANDTODAY2-1Chapter2MANAGEMENT2-1Youshouldlearnto:Discussmanagement’srelationshiptootheracademicfieldsofstudyExplainthevalueofstudyingmanagementhistoryIdentifysomemajorpre-twentieth-centurycontributionstomanagementSummarizethecontributionsofthescientificmanagementadvocatesDescribethecontributionsofthegeneraladministrativetheoristsLearning

Objectives2-2Youshouldlearnto:LearningOLearningObjectives(cont.)Youshouldlearnto:SummarizethequantitativeapproachtomanagementDescribethecontributionsoftheearlyorganizationalbehavioradvocatesExplaintheimportanceoftheHawthorneStudiestomanagementDescribetheeffectsof:globalization,workforcediversity,entrepreneurship,e-business,flexibilityandinnovation,qualitymanagement,learningorganizations,andworkplacespirituality2-3LearningObjectives(cont.)YouManagement’sConnectionToOtherFieldsAcademicDisciplinesthatAffectedManagementAnthropology-workonculturesandsocialenvironmentsEconomics-concernabouttheallocationanddistributionofscarceresourcesPhilosophy

-examinesthenatureofthingsPoliticalscience-effectofpoliticalenvironmentonindividualsandgroupsPsychology

-seekstomeasure,explain,andchangehumanbehaviorSociology-studiespeopleinrelationtotheirfellowhumanbeings2-4Management’sConnectionToOthBehumble,letimperialismgo!

北大光华组织与管理DevelopmentOfMajorManagement

TheoriesHistoricalBackgroundScientificManagementGeneralAdministrativeTheoristsQuantitativeApproachManagementTheoriesIndustrialRevolutionAdamSmithEarlyAdvocatesHawthorneStudiesOrganizationalBehavior2-6EarlyExamplesofManagementDevelopmentOfMajorManagemenHistoricalBackgroundOfManagementOrganizationsHaveExistedforThousandsofYearstestifiestotheexistenceofearlymanagementpracticeabilitytocreatethePyramids,GreatWallofChinaSignificantPre-Twentieth-CenturyEventsWealthofNations-AdamSmithdivisionoflabor-breakdownofjobsintonarrowandrepetitivetasksincreasedproductivityIndustrialRevolution

substitutionofmachinepowerforhumanpowerlargeorganizationsrequiredformalmanagement2-7HistoricalBackgroundOfManagScientificManagementF.W.Taylor-PrinciplesofScientificManagementuseofscientificmethodstodefinethe“onebestway”forajobtobedoneperspectiveofimprovingtheproductivityandefficiencyofmanualworkersappliedthescientificmethodtoshopfloorjobsFrankandLillianGilbrethuseofmotionpicturestostudyhand-and-bodymovementsmicrochronometertherbligs

-classificationsystemfor17basichandmotions2-8ScientificManagementF.W.TaylIllustrationTheBethlehemSteelCompanyHandlingpigironOldway:12andhalftonsperdayperworker,paid$1.15Newway:47tonsperdayperwork;paid$1.85.Correctmovement,toolsandsequencingTimeandmotionstudyIllustrationTheBethlehemStee

OrdinaryManagementV.S.ScientificManagementOrdinaryManagement:--differentwaysofdoingwork--learnthroughexperience--workman’sinitiative--variousincentiveScientificManagement:--onebestway--code,analyze,anddescribeeachjob--initiativefrommanagement--materialincentive

OrdinaryManagementV.S.ScieEXHIBIT2.2:TAYLOR’SFOURPRINCIPLESOFMANAGEMENT2-11EXHIBIT2.2:TAYLOR’SFOURPRISeparationofplanandexecutionPlanversusexecutionHeadversushandTaskspecifieswhatistobedone,howitistobedone,andexacttimeallowedfordoingitSeparationofplanandexecutiCritiqueofSM

WhatprogresshasSMmadecomparedtopreviousmanagement?

WhatelementsinSMarestillrelevantincontemporarymanagement? ProblemsofSMCritiqueofSM Whatprogressh德胜洋楼清洁马桶的流程一倒——在马桶内上沿均匀地倒一圈“威猛”洗洁剂；二泡——让洗洁剂浸泡10分钟，此时可先擦马桶的隔离门、洗手池等；三刷——用毛刷刷干净马桶；四冲——放水把马桶冲干净；五湿擦——用湿布将马桶内外及踏脚处擦一遍，放刷子的底座内的水也要擦干净；六干擦——用干布把马桶外围及桶内水线以上部分的水迹擦干©ZhangJianjun德胜洋楼清洁马桶的流程一倒——在马桶内上沿均匀地倒一圈“威猛HarryBraverman’sCritiqueThreeprinciples:First,dissociationofthelaborprocessfromtheskillsoftheworkers.Second,separationofconceptionfromexecution.Third,management’suseofmonopolyoverknowledgetocontroleachstepofthelaborprocessanditsmodeofexecution.HarryBraverman’sCritiqueThreGeneralAdministrativeTheoristsHenriFayolconcernedwithmakingtheoverallorganizationmoreeffectivedevelopedtheoriesofwhatconstitutedgoodmanagementpracticeproposedauniversalsetofmanagementfunctionspublishedprinciplesofmanagementfundamental,teachablerulesofmanagementGeneralAdministrativeTheorisEXHIBIT2.3:FAYOL’S14PRINCIPLESOFMANAGEMENT2-17EXHIBIT2.3:FAYOL’S14PRINCIGeneralAdministrativeTheorists(cont.)MaxWeberdevelopedatheoryofauthoritystructuresandrelationsBureaucracy-idealtypeoforganizationdivisionoflaborclearlydefinedhierarchydetailedrulesandregulationsimpersonalrelationships2-18GeneralAdministrativeTheorisEXHIBIT2.4:WEBER’SIDEALBUREAUCRACY2-19EXHIBIT2.4:WEBER’SIDEALBURThepositionoftheofficialVocationanddutySocialesteemAppointedTenureforlife,autonomySalaryCareerladder,seniorityThepositionoftheofficialVoBureaucracyversusDemocracyBureaucracyaccompaniesmassdemocracyAppointedversuselectedResponsibleforaboveversusforbelowBureaucraticdominationversusequalitybeforethelawExpertnessversusaccessibility

BureaucracyversusDemocracyQuantitativeApproachToManagementOperationsResearch(ManagementScience)useofquantitativetechniquestoimprovedecisionmakingapplicationsofstatisticsoptimizationmodelscomputersimulationsofmanagementactivitiesLinearprogramming-improvesresourceallocationdecisionsCritical-pathschedulinganalysis-improvesworkscheduling2-22QuantitativeApproachToManag古典管理理论理性效率放之四海而皆准只见组织不见人古典管理理论理性TowardUnderstandingOrganizationalBehaviorOrganizationalBehaviorstudyoftheactionsofpeopleatworkearlyadvocateslate1800sandearly1900sbelievedthatpeoplewerethemostimportantassetoftheorganizationideasprovidedthebasisforavarietyofhumanresourcemanagementprogramsemployeeselectionemployeemotivation2-24TowardUnderstandingOrganizatEXHIBIT2.5:EARLYADVOCATESOFOB2-25EXHIBIT2.5:EARLYADVOCATESOHawthorneStudiesstartedin1924atWesternElectricCompanybeganwithilluminationstudiesintensityofilluminationnotrelatedtoproductivityEltonMayo-studiesofjobdesignrevealedtheimportanceofsocialnormsasdeterminantsofindividualworkbehaviorchangedthedominantviewthatemployeeswerenodifferentfromanyothermachinesOrganizationalBehavior(cont.)2-26HawthorneStudiesOrganizationa

Thetwomajorfunctionsofanindustrialplant(organization)Producingaproduct:economicfunction.Efficiencyandrationalization.Creatinganddistributingsatisfactionsamongtheindividualmembersoftheorganization:maintainingemployeerelations,employeegoodwill,cooperation(Laborturnover,tenureofemployment,sicknessleave,wages,employeeattitude)

ThetwomajorfunctionsofanPhilosophyofhumanrelationsHumansideoforganizations:humanneeds,humannature(sentiments,values,etc.).ContrastwithrationalviewPhilosophyofhumanrelations对梅奥的批评梅奥主义者只是“社会工程师”，努力对工人进行“调节”，以便使人的因素适合于工业因素其思想的本质是“母牛社会学”，“满足的奶牛”能提供更多的牛奶，满足的工人更有效率通过对于工人内心深层的了解，对其进行操纵梅奥并不真正关心员工，只不过他比泰勒做的更巧妙而已．对梅奥的批评梅奥主义者只是“社会工程师”，努力对工人进行“调

一个农民向神父诉苦说：他的小茅屋可怕地拥挤，神父建议他把母牛牵到房间去，下一个星期又把羊放进去，再下一个星期又把马放进去，农民更厉害地抱怨起自己的命运来．于是神父劝他把牛牵出去，下一周把羊放出去，再下一周把马放出去，最后农民感激地对神父致谢，因为神父减轻了他的负担．一个农民向神父诉苦说：他的小茅屋可怕地拥挤，神父建议他把母梅奥之后的“社会人”思潮呼唤社会的，群体的技能而不是技术的技能强调通过群体和社会团结来重建人们的归属感，克服“灵魂的混乱”注意通过工会、参与式领导以及把工厂中的正式组织和社会组织结合起来实现权利的平衡梅奥之后的“社会人”思潮呼唤社会的，群体的技能而不是技术的技在人类的商业活动中，经济利益决非是首要和唯一的原动力，他在使人们愿意去工作的激励因素排名中是很靠后的．．．工作中的人们不仅仅是“经济人”，更是社会性动物，他们不仅有经济需要，还有个性和社会的需要。工作提供给他们的不仅是一种生存手段，更是一种生活方式．．．．．当我们放弃“经济人”的观念时，我们开始质疑商业组织的理念：它是否只是一种为了提高生产效率的合理的运营组织。－－Roethlisberger,F.J.,1984,pp.12-13在人类的商业活动中，经济利益决非是首要和唯一的原动力，他在CurrentTrendsAndIssuesGlobalizationallorganizationsarefacedwiththeopportunitiesandchallengesofoperatinginaglobalmarketNolongerconstrainedbynationalbordersStrategicalliances2-33CurrentTrendsAndIssues2-33CurrentTrendsAndIssues(cont.)Entrepreneurshipthreeimportantthemespursuitofopportunities-capitalizingonenvironmentalchangetocreatevalueinnovation-introducingnewapproachestosatisfyunfulfilledmarketneedsgrowth-notcontenttoremainsmallwillcontinuetobeimportantinallsocietieswillinfluenceprofitandnot-for-profitorganizations2-34CurrentTrendsAndIssues(conCurrentTrendsAndIssues(cont.)ManaginginanE-BusinessWorldE-commerce-anyformofbusinessexchangeortransactioninwhichpartiesinteractelectronicallyE-business-comprehensivetermdescribingthewayanorganizationdoesitsworkbyusingelectronic(Internet-based)linkageswithkeyconstituenciesmayincludee-commercethreecategoriesreflectdifferentdegreesofinvolvementine-businessintranet-aninternalorganizationalcommunicationsystemthatusesInternettechnologyandisaccessibleonlybyorganizationalemployees2-35CurrentTrendsAndIssues(conTypesofE-CommerceTransactionsE-CommerceBusiness-to-Consumer(B2C)ElectronicretailingGovernment-to-Business(G2B)AlltransactionsbetweencompaniesandgovernmentagenciesBusiness-to-Business(B2B)AlltransactionsbetweenacompanyanditssuppliersConsumer-to-Consumer(C2C)ElectronicmarketsformedbyWeb-basedauctions2-36TypesofE-CommerceTransactioCategoriesofE-BusinessInvolvementE-businessunitswithintraditionalorganizationE-business-enhancedOrganizationE-businesstoolsandapplicationsusedwithintradi-tionalorganizationE-business-enabledOrganizationOrganization’sentireworkprocessesrevolvearounde-businessmodel2-37CategoriesofE-BusinessInvolCurrentTrendsAndIssues(cont.)NeedforInnovationandFlexibilitywithoutaconstantflowofnewideas,anorganizationisdoomedtoobsolescenceorevenworsemustbeflexibletoaccommodatechangingcustomers’needs,appearanceofnewcompetitors,andshiftingemployeesfromprojecttoprojectQualityManagementTotalQualityManagement(TQM)-philosophyofmanagementbasedoncontinualimprovementandrespondingtocustomerneedsandexpectationscustomer-referstointernalandexternalentitiesthatinteractwiththeorganization’sproductorservice2-38CurrentTrendsAndIssues(conCurrentTrendsAndIssues(cont.)LearningOrganizationsandKnowledgeManagementlearningorganization-onethathasdevelopedthecapacitytocontinuouslylearn,adapt,andchangecreatelearningcapabilitiesthroughouttheorganizationunderstandingthatknowledgeisanimportantresourceknowledgemanagement-involvescultivatingalearningculturewhereorganizationalmemberssystematicallygatherknowledgeandshareitwithothersintheorganizationsoastoachievebetterperformancemanagersmusttransformthemselvesfrombossestoteamleaderslearntolisten,motivate,coach,andnurture2-39CurrentTrendsAndIssues(conEXHIBIT2.9:LEARNINGORGANIZATIONVERSUSTRADITIONALORGANIZATION2-40EXHIBIT2.9:LEARNINGORGANIZACurrentTrendsAndIssues(cont.)WorkplaceSpirituality“arecognitionofaninnerlifethatnourishesandisnourishedbymeaningfulworkthattakesplaceinthecontextofcommunity”growinginterestinspiritualityatworkbyworkersatalllevelsandinallareasoforganizationsemployeeslookingformeaning,purpose,andasenseofconnectednessorcommunityfromtheirworkandtheirworkplaceuncertaintyinbusinessenvironmentcontributestointerestinworkplacespirituality2-41CurrentTrendsAndIssues(conChapter2MANAGEMENTYESTERDAYANDTODAY2-42Chapter2MANAGEMENT2-1Youshouldlearnto:Discussmanagement’srelationshiptootheracademicfieldsofstudyExplainthevalueofstudyingmanagementhistoryIdentifysomemajorpre-twentieth-centurycontributionstomanagementSummarizethecontributionsofthescientificmanagementadvocatesDescribethecontributionsofthegeneraladministrativetheoristsLearning

Objectives2-43Youshouldlearnto:LearningOLearningObjectives(cont.)Youshouldlearnto:SummarizethequantitativeapproachtomanagementDescribethecontributionsoftheearlyorganizationalbehavioradvocatesExplaintheimportanceoftheHawthorneStudiestomanagementDescribetheeffectsof:globalization,workforcediversity,entrepreneurship,e-business,flexibilityandinnovation,qualitymanagement,learningorganizations,andworkplacespirituality2-44LearningObjectives(cont.)YouManagement’sConnectionToOtherFieldsAcademicDisciplinesthatAffectedManagementAnthropology-workonculturesandsocialenvironmentsEconomics-concernabouttheallocationanddistributionofscarceresourcesPhilosophy

-examinesthenatureofthingsPoliticalscience-effectofpoliticalenvironmentonindividualsandgroupsPsychology

-seekstomeasure,explain,andchangehumanbehaviorSociology-studiespeopleinrelationtotheirfellowhumanbeings2-45Management’sConnectionToOthBehumble,letimperialismgo!

北大光华组织与管理DevelopmentOfMajorManagement

TheoriesHistoricalBackgroundScientificManagementGeneralAdministrativeTheoristsQuantitativeApproachManagementTheoriesIndustrialRevolutionAdamSmithEarlyAdvocatesHawthorneStudiesOrganizationalBehavior2-47EarlyExamplesofManagementDevelopmentOfMajorManagemenHistoricalBackgroundOfManagementOrganizationsHaveExistedforThousandsofYearstestifiestotheexistenceofearlymanagementpracticeabilitytocreatethePyramids,GreatWallofChinaSignificantPre-Twentieth-CenturyEventsWealthofNations-AdamSmithdivisionoflabor-breakdownofjobsintonarrowandrepetitivetasksincreasedproductivityIndustrialRevolution

substitutionofmachinepowerforhumanpowerlargeorganizationsrequiredformalmanagement2-48HistoricalBackgroundOfManagScientificManagementF.W.Taylor-PrinciplesofScientificManagementuseofscientificmethodstodefinethe“onebestway”forajobtobedoneperspectiveofimprovingtheproductivityandefficiencyofmanualworkersappliedthescientificmethodtoshopfloorjobsFrankandLillianGilbrethuseofmotionpicturestostudyhand-and-bodymovementsmicrochronometertherbligs

-classificationsystemfor17basichandmotions2-49ScientificManagementF.W.TaylIllustrationTheBethlehemSteelCompanyHandlingpigironOldway:12andhalftonsperdayperworker,paid$1.15Newway:47tonsperdayperwork;paid$1.85.Correctmovement,toolsandsequencingTimeandmotionstudyIllustrationTheBethlehemStee

OrdinaryManagementV.S.ScientificManagementOrdinaryManagement:--differentwaysofdoingwork--learnthroughexperience--workman’sinitiative--variousincentiveScientificManagement:--onebestway--code,analyze,anddescribeeachjob--initiativefrommanagement--materialincentive

OrdinaryManagementV.S.ScieEXHIBIT2.2:TAYLOR’SFOURPRINCIPLESOFMANAGEMENT2-52EXHIBIT2.2:TAYLOR’SFOURPRISeparationofplanandexecutionPlanversusexecutionHeadversushandTaskspecifieswhatistobedone,howitistobedone,andexacttimeallowedfordoingitSeparationofplanandexecutiCritiqueofSM

WhatprogresshasSMmadecomparedtopreviousmanagement?

WhatelementsinSMarestillrelevantincontemporarymanagement? ProblemsofSMCritiqueofSM Whatprogressh德胜洋楼清洁马桶的流程一倒——在马桶内上沿均匀地倒一圈“威猛”洗洁剂；二泡——让洗洁剂浸泡10分钟，此时可先擦马桶的隔离门、洗手池等；三刷——用毛刷刷干净马桶；四冲——放水把马桶冲干净；五湿擦——用湿布将马桶内外及踏脚处擦一遍，放刷子的底座内的水也要擦干净；六干擦——用干布把马桶外围及桶内水线以上部分的水迹擦干©ZhangJianjun德胜洋楼清洁马桶的流程一倒——在马桶内上沿均匀地倒一圈“威猛HarryBraverman’sCritiqueThreeprinciples:First,dissociationofthelaborprocessfromtheskillsoftheworkers.Second,separationofconceptionfromexecution.Third,management’suseofmonopolyoverknowledgetocontroleachstepofthelaborprocessanditsmodeofexecution.HarryBraverman’sCritiqueThreGeneralAdministrativeTheoristsHenriFayolconcernedwithmakingtheoverallorganizationmoreeffectivedevelopedtheoriesofwhatconstitutedgoodmanagementpracticeproposedauniversalsetofmanagementfunctionspublishedprinciplesofmanagementfundamental,teachablerulesofmanagementGeneralAdministrativeTheorisEXHIBIT2.3:FAYOL’S14PRINCIPLESOFMANAGEMENT2-58EXHIBIT2.3:FAYOL’S14PRINCIGeneralAdministrativeTheorists(cont.)MaxWeberdevelopedatheoryofauthoritystructuresandrelationsBureaucracy-idealtypeoforganizationdivisionoflaborclearlydefinedhierarchydetailedrulesandregulationsimpersonalrelationships2-59GeneralAdministrativeTheorisEXHIBIT2.4:WEBER’SIDEALBUREAUCRACY2-60EXHIBIT2.4:WEBER’SIDEALBURThepositionoftheofficialVocationanddutySocialesteemAppointedTenureforlife,autonomySalaryCareerladder,seniorityThepositionoftheofficialVoBureaucracyversusDemocracyBureaucracyaccompaniesmassdemocracyAppointedversuselectedResponsibleforaboveversusforbelowBureaucraticdominationversusequalitybeforethelawExpertnessversusaccessibility

BureaucracyversusDemocracyQuantitativeApproachToManagementOperationsResearch(ManagementScience)useofquantitativetechniquestoimprovedecisionmakingapplicationsofstatisticsoptimizationmodelscomputersimulationsofmanagementactivitiesLinearprogramming-improvesresourceallocationdecisionsCritical-pathschedulinganalysis-improvesworkscheduling2-63QuantitativeApproachToManag古典管理理论理性效率放之四海而皆准只见组织不见人古典管理理论理性TowardUnderstandingOrganizationalBehaviorOrganizationalBehaviorstudyoftheactionsofpeopleatworkearlyadvocateslate1800sandearly1900sbelievedthatpeoplewerethemostimportantassetoftheorganizationideasprovidedthebasisforavarietyofhumanresourcemanagementprogramsemployeeselectionemployeemotivation2-65TowardUnderstandingOrganizatEXHIBIT2.5:EARLYADVOCATESOFOB2-66EXHIBIT2.5:EARLYADVOCATESOHawthorneStudiesstartedin1924atWesternElectricCompanybeganwithilluminationstudiesintensityofilluminationnotrelatedtoproductivityEltonMayo-studiesofjobdesignrevealedtheimportanceofsocialnormsasdeterminantsofindividualworkbehaviorchangedthedominantviewthatemployeeswerenodifferentfromanyothermachinesOrganizationalBehavior(cont.)2-67HawthorneStudiesOrganizationa

Thetwomajorfunctionsofanindustrialplant(organization)Producingaproduct:economicfunction.Efficiencyandrationalization.Creatinganddistributingsatisfactionsamongtheindividualmembersoftheorganization:maintainingemployeerelations,employeegoodwill,cooperation(Laborturnover,tenureofemployment,sicknessleave,wages,employeeattitude)

ThetwomajorfunctionsofanPhilosophyofhumanrelationsHumansideoforganizations:humanneeds,humannature(sentiments,values,etc.).ContrastwithrationalviewPhilosophyofhumanrelations对梅奥的批评梅奥主义者只是“社会工程师”，努力对工人进行“调节”，以便使人的因素适合于工业因素其思想的本质是“母牛社会学”，“满足的奶牛”能提供更多的牛奶，满足的工人更有效率通过对于工人内心深层的了解，对其进行操纵梅奥并不真正关心员工，只不过他比泰勒做的更巧妙而已．对梅奥的批评梅奥主义者只是“社会工程师”，努力对工人进行“调

一个农民向神父诉苦说：他的小茅屋可怕地拥挤，神父建议他把母牛牵到房间去，下一个星期又把羊放进去，再下一个星期又把马放进去，农民更厉害地抱怨起自己的命运来．于是神父劝他把牛牵出去，下一周把羊放出去，再下一周把马放出去，最后农民感激地对神父致谢，因为神父减轻了他的负担．一个农民向神父诉苦说：他的小茅屋可怕地拥挤，神父建议他把母梅奥之后的“社会人”思潮呼唤社会的，群体的技能而不是技术的技能强调通过群体和社会团结来重建人们的归属感，克服“灵魂的混乱”注意通过工会、参与式领导以及把工厂中的正式组织和社会组织结合起来实现权利的平衡梅奥之后的“社会人”思潮呼唤社会的，群体的技能而不是技术的技在人类的商业活动中，经济利益决非是首要和唯一的原动力，他在使人们愿意去工作的激励因素排名中是很靠后的．．．工作中的人们不仅仅是“经济人”，更是社会性动物，他们不仅有经济需要，还有个性和社会的需要。工作提供给他们的不仅是一种生存手段，更是一种生活方式．．．．．当我们放弃“经济人”的观念时，我们开始质疑商业组织的理念：它是否只是一种为了提高生产效率的合理的运营组织。－－Roethlisberger,F.J.,1984,pp.12-13在人类的商业活动中，经济利益决非是首要和唯一的原动力，他在CurrentTrendsAndIssuesGlobalizationallorganizationsarefacedwiththeopportunitiesandchallengesofoperatinginaglobalmarketNolongerconstrainedbynationalbordersStrategicalliances2-74CurrentTrendsAndIssues2-33CurrentTrendsAndIssues(cont.)Entrepreneurshipthreeimportantthemespursuitofopportunities-capitalizingonenvironmentalchangetocreatevalueinnovation-introducingnewapproachestosatisfyunfulfilledmarketneedsgrowth-notcontenttoremainsmallwillcontinuetobeimportantinallsocietieswillinfluenceprofitandnot-for-profitorganizations2-75CurrentTrendsAndIssues(conCurrentTrendsAndIssues(cont.)ManaginginanE-BusinessWorldE-commerce-anyformofbusinessexchangeortransactioninwhichpartiesinteractelectronicallyE-business-comprehensivetermdescribingthewayanorganizationdoesitsworkbyusingelectronic(Internet-based)linkageswithkeyconstituenciesmayincludee-commercethreecategoriesreflectdifferentdegreesofinvolvementine-businessintranet-aninternalorganizationalcommunicationsystemthatusesInternettechnologyandisaccessibleonlybyorganizationalemployees2-76CurrentTrendsAndIssues(conTypesofE-CommerceTransactionsE-CommerceBusiness-to-Consumer(B2C)ElectronicretailingGovernment-to-Business(G2B)AlltransactionsbetweencompaniesandgovernmentagenciesBusine