药学英语课文翻译+课后翻译节选+中英双语对照+第四版

本篇包括人卫第四版Unit3B，Unit4A，5A，8A，10A，12AB，13A等七篇课文Unit3TextBTheOtherSideofAntibiotics抗生素的另一面Antibioticshaveeliminatedorcontrolledsomanyinfectiousdiseasesthatvirtuallyeveryonehasbenefitedfromtheiruseatonetimeoranother.Evenwithoutsuchpersonalexperience,however,onewouldhavetobeisolatedindeedtobeunawareofthevirtues,realandspeculative,ofthese―miracle‖drugs1.TheAmericanpress,radio,andtelevisionhavedoneagoodjobofreportingthetrulyremarkablestoryofsuccessesinthechemicalwarongerms.What′smore,anyshortcomingsontheirparthavebeenmorethanmadeupforbytheaggressivepublicrelationsactivityofthepharmaceuticalcompanieswhichmanufactureandsellantibiotics.抗生素可以消除或控制很多种感染疾病，以致几乎每人生病时都习惯于使用它而受益，但是如果一个人没有这样的亲身经历，他必定是离群索居才会不知道这些“特效药物”或真实或推测的优点。美国的出版物、电台或电视台用大量的篇幅报道了有关对细菌的化学战中获得的这些显著功绩。而它的缺点却被生产和销售抗生素的制药公司通过公关活动掩藏了。Incomparison,theinadequaciesandpotentialdangersoftheseremarkabledrugsaremuchlesswidelyknown.Andthelackofsuchknowledgecanbebad,especiallyifitleadspatientstopressuretheirdoctorsintoprescribingantibioticswhensuchmedicationisn’treallyneeded,orleadsthemtoswitchdoctorsuntiltheyfindonewhois,sotospeak,antibiotics-minded2.相比而言，使用这些药物的危险性并不广为人知。对这种知识的缺乏将更糟糕，特别是当患者要求医生开处方用抗生素而事实并不需要，或患者频繁地更换医生直至找到一个同意开抗生素处方的医生。Becausethegoodsideoftheantibioticsstoryissoverywell-known,thereseemsmorepointheretoareviewofsomeoftheimmediateandlong-rangeproblemsthatcancomefromtoday’scasualuseofthesedrugs.Itshouldbemadeclearinadvancethatcalamitiesfromtheuseofantibioticsarerareinrelationtotheenormousamountsofthedrugsadministered.Butthepotentialhazards,solittletouchedongenerally,doneedaclearstatement.因为抗生素的好的一面已广为人知，今天抗生素的滥用导致短期或长期问题。我们预先应该知道与抗生素的巨大的使用量相比,它产生危害的例子是少见的。但是，尽管十分少见，需要对这种潜在的危险作一个清楚的说明。Theantibioticsarenot,strictlyspeaking,exclusivelyprescriptiondrugs.Anumberofthemarepermittedinsuchover-the-counterproductsasnasalsprays,lozenges,troches,creams,andointments.Eveniftheseproductsdonoharmthereisnopointwhatsoeverinusingthem.Ifyouhaveaninfectionseriousenoughtowarrantthelaunchingofchemicalwarfare,youneedmuchbiggerdosesoftheantibioticsthananyofthenon-prescriptionproductsareallowedtocontain.严格来讲，抗生素并不全是处方药。许多抗生素被允许作为非处方药(如鼻喷雾剂、键剂、片剂、软膏和乳膏),尽管它们没有危害，也不能随意地使用。如果你患了严重的感染，你就得需要比非处方药所允许最大剂量更大剂量的抗生素了。Over-the-counterproducts,however,accountforonlyasmallpercentageoftotalantibioticsproduction.Itistheprescriptiondosagesthatgivepeopletrouble.然而，非处方药品只是整个抗生素类产品的一小部分，正是处方药物给人类带来了麻烦。Thesedrugs—evenallowingforthediverseabilitiesofthemanynarrow-spectrumonesandtheversatilityofthebroad-spectrumones—arenotthecure-allstheyoftenarebilledasbeing.Therearewidegapsintheirabilitytomastercontagiousdiseases.Suchimportantinfectionsasmumps,measles,commoncolds,influenza,andinfectioushepatitisstillawaitconquest.Allarevirusinfectionsanddespiteintenseefforts,verylittleprogresshasbeenmadeinchemotherapyagainstviruses.Onlysmallprogresshasbeenachievedagainstfungi.Manystrainsofbacteriaandfungiarenaturallyresistanttoallcurrentlyavailableantibioticsandotherchemotherapeuticdrugs.这些药物一即使允许最大能力,很多窄谱抗生素和广谱抗生素也并不是如宣传的那样治疗百病。它们的能力与治疗传染性疾病间还存在很大的差距。如腮腺炎、麻疹、普通感冒、流行性感冒和传染性肝炎等严重感染性疾病仍有待解决。这些都是病毒感染，尽管做出了很大的努力，但是在抗病毒的化疗药物的研究上几乎没有什么进展。抗真菌药物的研究上只取得一点小成就。很多细菌和真菌对现有的抗生素和其他化疗药物具有耐药性。Somemicroorganismsoriginallysensitivetotheactionofantibiotics,especiallystaphylococcus,havedevelopedresistantstrains.Thisacquiredresistanceimposesonthelongrangevalueofthedrugsaveryimportantlimitation,whichisnotadequatelymetbythefrequentintroductionofnewantimicrobialagentstocombattheproblem.一些原来对抗生素敏感的细菌，特别是葡萄球菌现在也产生了耐药性，这些获得的耐药性对药物的长期使用产生重要的限制，频繁引人新的抗菌药物也不能完全解决这个问题。Ithasbeenprettywellestablishedthattheincreaseinstrainsofbacteriaresistanttoanantibioticcorrelatesdirectlywiththedurationandextentofuseofthatantibioticinagivenlocation.Inonehospitalasurveyshowedthat,beforeerythromycinhadbeenwidelyusedthere,allstrainsofstaphylococcitakenfrompatientsandpersonnelweresensitivetoitsaction.Whenthehospitalstartedextensiveuseoferythromycin,however,resistantstaphylococcusstrainsbegantoappear.现已经确定，在一些地区，抗生素广泛和长期的使用与细菌耐药性增加有直接的相互关系。某医院调查显示，在红霉素广泛使用以前，所有从病人身上取出的葡萄球菌都对红霉素敏感.然而，自从医院开始广泛应用红霉素以来，耐药葡萄球菌菌株开始出现。Thedevelopmentofbacterialresistancecanbeminimizedbyamorediscriminatinguseofantibiotics,andthepersontakingthedrugcanhelphere.Whenanantibioticmustbeused,thebestwaytopreventthedevelopmentofresistanceistowipeouttheinfectionasrapidlyandthoroughlyaspossible.Ideally,thisrequiresabactericidaldrug,whichdestroys,ratherthanabacteriostaticdrug,whichinhibits.Andthedrugmustbetakeninadequatedosageforaslongasisnecessarytoeradicatetheinfectioncompletely.Thedoctor,ofcourse,mustchoosethedrug,butpatientscanhelpbybeingsuretotakethefullcourseoftreatmentrecommendedbythedoctor,eventhoughsymptomsseemtodisappearbeforeallthepillsaregone.Inrareinstancestheemergenceofresistancecanbedelayedorreducedbycombinationsofantibiotics.Treatmentoftuberculosiswithstreptomycinaloneresultsinahighdegreeofresistance,butifpara-aminosalicylicacidorisoniazidisusedwithstreptomycinthepossibilitythatthiscomplicationwillariseisgreatlyreduced.更有区别的应用抗生素可以最大限度地抑制细菌耐药性的发展，使用药物的病人可对此有所帮助。当必须使用一种抗生素时，最好的避免耐药性方法就是尽快彻底地去除感染。这就需要用能杀死细菌的杀菌药，而不是抑制细菌的抑菌药。这种药物必须使用一定剂量，并且一定的时间以完全根除这种感染。医生当然得选这种药，但患者须遵医嘱、使用足够的治疗量，即使在药物吃完以前症状似乎已经消失。少数情况下联合用药可以推迟或降低耐药性的产生。用链霉素单独治疗结核病会导致高度的耐药，但如果链霉素联用对氨基水杨酸或异烟肼将大大降低耐药性。Inhospitaltreatmentofsevereinfections,thesensitivityoftheinfectingorganismtoappropriateantibioticsisdeterminedinthelaboratorybeforetreatmentisstarted.Thisenablesthedoctortoselectthemosteffectivedrugordrugs;itdetermineswhethertheantibioticisbactericidalorbacteriostaticforthegermsathand;anditsuggeststheamountneededtodestroythegrowthofthebacteriacompletely.Ineitherhospitalorhome,asepticmeasurescanhelptoreducetheprevalenceofresistantstrainsofgermsbypreventingcrossinfectionandtheresultantspreadingoforganisms.在医院治疗严重感染时，感染菌对抗生素的敏感性在治疗前已在实验室确定，这样可以使医生选择最有效的药物，可以决定使用抑菌还是杀菌的抗生素，并可对能完全破坏细菌生长所需的用量给出建议。无论在医院或是在家里，无菌措施由于避免了交叉感染以及由此造成的生物体传播，从而可以降低细菌耐药菌株的广泛流行。Everyoneoftheantibioticsispotentiallydangerousforsomepeople.Severalseriousreactionsmayresultfromtheiruse.Oneisasevere,sometimesfatal,shock-likeanaphylacticaction,whichmaystrikepeoplewhohavebecomesensitizedtopenicillin.Anaphylacticreactionhappenslessfrequentlyandislessseverewhentheantibioticisgivenbymouth.Itismostapttooccurinpeoplewithahistoryofallergy,orarecordofsensitivitytopenicillin.Verysmallamountsofpenicillin,eventhetraceswhichgetintothemilkofcowsforafewdaysaftertheyaretreatedwiththeantibioticformastitis,maybesufficienttosensitize;hence,thestrongcampaignbyfoodanddrugofficialstokeepsuchmilkoffthemarket.对有些人来说任何一种抗生素都可能有潜在的危险。一些严重的反应可能是由于它们的应用产生的，其中之一就是严重的有时甚至是致死性的过敏性休克，对青霉素过敏的人使用青霉素将很危险。口服抗生素将使过敏频率降低或降低严重性。青霉素过敏或有过敏史者更容易发生。奶牛使用抗生素治疗乳腺炎几天后，其牛奶中带入的极其少量甚至痕量的青霉素也可能足以引起过敏。所以食品药品监督官员采取强有力的措施防止这种牛奶进人市场。Tominimizetheriskofanaphylacticshockinillnesseswhereinjectionsofpenicillinarethepreferredtreatment,acarefuldoctorwillquestionthepatientcarefullyaboutallergiesandpreviousreactions.Incaseofdoubtanotherantibioticwillbesubstituted,iffeasible,orotherprecautionarymeasureswillbetakenbeforetheinjectionisgiven.当注射青霉素是首选治疗方案时，为降低这种过敏性休克，谨慎的医生会仔细询问病人的过敏史及其反应。如过敏史不清楚，医生会用其他抗生素代替或注射前用其他方法检查其是否过敏。Otheruntowardreactionstoantibioticsaregastrointestinaldisorders—suchassoremouth,cramps,diarrhea,oranalitch—whichoccurmostfrequentlyafteruseofthetetracyclinegroupbuthavealsobeenencounteredafteruseofpenicillinandstreptomycin.Thesereactionsmayresultfromsuppressionbytheantibioticofbacterianormallyfoundinthegastrointestinaltract.Withtheircompetitionremoved,antibiotic-resistantstaphylococciorfungi,whichalsoarenormallypresent,arefreetoflourishandcausewhatiscalledasuper-infection.Suchinfectionscanbeextremelydifficulttocure.其他抗生素不良反应包括胃肠道不适，如口腔疼痛、痉挛、腹泻、肛门瘙痒，这种情况在使用四环素类抗生素后经常发生，在使用青霉素和链霉素后也会遇到。这些反应可能是由于使用的抗生素抑制了正常的胃肠道菌群引起的。随着这种竞争的消除，正常存在的葡萄球菌或真菌耐药菌株自由繁殖并引起所谓的超感染，这种感染将更难治疗。Afewantibioticshavesuchtoxiceffectsthattheirusefulnessisstrictlylimited.Theyincludestreptomycinanddihydro-streptomycin,whichsometimescausedeafness,andchloramphenicol,whichmayinjurethebonemarrow.Drugswithsuchseriouspotentialdangersastheseshouldbeusedonlyiflifeisthreatenedandnothingelsewillwork有些抗生素有毒性作用，使其应用受到了严格的限制。这类抗生素包括会导致耳聋的链霉素和双氢链霉素，以及会产生骨髓损伤的氯霉素。这些有严重危险的药物只有在生命受到威胁或其他药物无效时才使用。Allthepossibletroublesthatcanresultfromantibiotictreatmentshouldnotkeepanyonefromusingoneofthesedrugswhenitisclearlyindicated.Norshouldtheydiscouragecertainpreventiveusesofantibioticswhichhaveprovedextremelyvaluable.由于有些抗生素疗效确切，因此使用抗生素所带来的所有可能的麻烦也不能阻止任何人用任何一种抗生素，对于被证明是有效的抗生素，人们不会不鼓励它们的使用。翻译1.另一种发现新的抗生素的高难度方法是合理药物设计，即利用有关分子结构的知识来进行全新的药品设计或改进。Rationaldrugdesignisanothermoredifficultmethodofnewantibioticsdiscovery,thatistosay,designorimproveabrandnewdrugbyusingtheknowledgeofmolecularstructure.2.制药工业在探索和开发新药的同时还要对抗现有抗生素不断増长的微生物耐药性，这将是一条漫长的道路。Whenpharmaceuticalindustryexploresanddevelopsanewdrug,itfightsagainstthemicrobialresistancestoavailableantibioticsallthetime.Itisaverylongway.3.应该大力鼓励医生、制药业以及公众态度的转变。必须将抗生素视为一种应被谨慎使用并且仅在真正必需时才使用的宝贵资源。Thechangeofdoctors,pharmaceuticalindustryandthepublicattitudesshouldbeencouragedgreatly.Theantibioticsmustbeviewedasapreciousresourceonlyusedcautiouslyinrealneeds.4.全世界都必须在医学教育的初期就进行关于抗生素的审慎使用及其耐药危险的灌输，并且，这种教育还应贯穿于医学工作者的整个医疗生涯。Thecautioususeofantibioticsandtheirhazardousresistancesshouldbepumpedintothemedicalstudentsduringtheirearlymedicaleducationthroughouttheworld.What'smore,thiseducationshouldpenetratethroughthemedicalworker'swholecareer.5.制药工业必须停止推进非临床使用抗生素的生产，并且，它应该认识到，它将从抗生素的合理使用中获利，因此，应该对为此所作的各种尝试提供财务援助。Pharmaceuticalindustrymuststopproducingthenon-clinicalantibiotics,anditmayrealizethatitwillbenefitalotfromrationaluseofantibiotics.Hence,itshouldofferfinancialaidstoalltheseattempts.Unit4TextATheScopeofPharmacology药理学范畴Initsentirety,pharmacologyembracestheknowledgeofthehistory,source,physicalandchemicalproperties,compounding,biochemicalandphysiologicaleffects,mechanismsofaction,absorption,distribution,biotransformationandexcretion,andtherapeuticandotherusesofdrugs.Sinceadrugisbroadlydefinedasanychemicalagentthataffectslivingprocesses,thesubjectofpharmacologyisobviouslyquiteextensive.总体来说，药理学包括药物的以下诸方面内容:历史背景、来源、理化特性、合成、生化生理作用、作用机制、吸收、分布、生物转化和排泄以及治疗作用和其他作用。由于药物被一般性定义为影响生命过程的化学物质，因而药理学范畴显然是极其广泛的。Forthephysicianandthemedicalstudent,however,thescopeofpharmacologyislessexpansivethanindicatedbytheabovedefinitions.Theclinicianisinterestedprimarilyindrugsthatareusefulintheprevention,diagnosis,andtreatmentofhumandisease,orinthepreventionofpregnancy.Hisstudyofthepharmacologyofthesedrugscanbereasonablylimitedtothoseaspectsthatprovidethebasisfortheirrationalclinicaluse.Secondarily,thephysicianisalsoconcernedwithchemicalagentsthatarenotusedintherapybutarecommonlyresponsibleforhouseholdandindustrialpoisoningaswellasenvironmentalpollution.Hisstudyofthesesubstancesisjustifiablyrestrictedtothegeneralprinciplesofprevention,recognition,andtreatmentofsuchtoxicityorpollution.Finally,allphysiciansshareintheresponsibilitytohelpresolvethecontinuingsociologicalproblemoftheabuseofdrugs.然而，就医生和医学生生而言，药理学范畴并没有上述定义那么广泛。临床医生的主要兴趣在于药物对人类疾病的预防、诊断及治疗.或是在避孕方而所起的作用。因而他对这些药物的药理学研究不仅仅周限于某些方面，只要能为其合理的临床用药提供理论根据就行。其次，医生也关注某些化学物质，这些物质虽然不用于治疗，但通常与家庭中毒；工业中毒以及环境污染有关。医生对这些物质的研究当然仅限于一般性了解。对这类中毒或汚污染的防范、诊断和治疗。最后，所有医生都应责无旁贷地为解决药品滥用所引起的社会问题而做出自己的努力。Abriefconsiderationofitsmajorsubjectareaswillfurtherclarifyhowthestudyofpharmacologyisbestapproachedfromthestandpointofthespecificrequirementsandinterestsofthemedicalstudentandpractitioner.Atonetime,itwasessentialforthephysiciantohaveabroadbotanicalknowledge,sincehehadtoselecttheproperplantsfromwhichtopreparehisowncrudemedicinalpreparations.However,fewerdrugsarenowobtainedfromnaturalsources,and,moreimportantly,mostofthesearehighlypurifiedorstandardizedanddifferlittlefromsyntheticchemicals.Hence,theinterestsoftheclinicianinpharmacognosyarecorrespondinglylimited.Nevertheless,scientificcuriosityshouldstimulatethephysiciantolearnsomethingofthesourcesofdrugs,andthisknowledgeoftenprovespracticallyusefulaswellasinteresting.Hewillfindthehistoryofdrugsofsimilarvalue.从医学生和从业医师的特別耑求和一般兴趣的角度来看，什么才是药理学学习的最佳途径呢？只要对其主要学科领域稍加研究便可知晓。以前，医师必须拥有广泛的植物方而的知识，因为他得挑选适当的植物，且将其制备成简单的药物制剂。然而，现在的药物已很少取自于天然植物，而且更为重要的是大多数天然药物已被高度提纯，且与合成的化学药物无甚区别，所以，临床医生对生药学的兴趣也相应减弱。尽管如此，应该激励临床医生了解药物的来源的科学好奇心，这方面知识往往被证明不但有趣，而且有用。他将会发现了解药物的历史同样具有价值。Thepreparing,compounding,anddispensingofmedicinesatonetimelaywithintheprovinceofthephysician,butthisworkisnowdelegatedalmostcompletelytothepharmacist1.However,towriteintelligentprescriptionorders,thephysicianmusthavesomeknowledgeofthephysicalandchemicalpropertiesofdrugsandtheiravailabledosageforms,andhemusthaveabasicfamiliaritywiththepracticeofpharmacy.Whenthephysicianshirkshisresponsibilityinthisregard,heinvariablyfailstotranslatehisknowledgeofpharmacologyandmedicineintoprescriptionordersandmedicationbestsuitedfortheindividualpatient.药物的制备、合成与销售一度都是医生的职责，但这项工作现在几乎全归药师了。不过临床医师要想开出合理的处方，必须对药物的理化性质及其现有剂型有所了解,必须基本了解药房业务。若临床医师逃避这方面责任，他肯定用不好药理学及药物知识，从而难以开出适合每位患者的最佳医疗处方。IPharmacokineticsdealswiththeabsorption,distribution,biotransformation,andexcretionofdrugs.Thesefactors,coupledwithdosage,determinetheconcentrationofadrugatitssitesofactionand,hence,theintensityofitseffectsasafunctionoftime.Manybasicprinciplesofbiochemistryandenzymologyandthephysicalandchemicalprinciplesthatgoverntheactiveandpassivetransferandthedistributionofsubstancesacrossbiologicalmembranesarereadilyappliedtotheunderstandingofthisimportantaspectofpharmacology2.药物动力学涉及药物的吸收、分布、生物转化以及排泄等方面。这些因素再加上剂量便决定了药物在其作用点的浓度，进而决定了其与时间成函数关系的药效强度。在对药理学这一重要方面的理解过程中，常常运用到许多有关生物化学和酶学方面的基本原理和物理化学方面的一些基本法则，而这些原理和法则决定着物质在生物膜之间的主动和被动转移及分布。Thestudyofthebiochemicalandphysiologicaleffectsofdrugsandtheirmechanismsofactionistermedaspharmacodynamics.Itisanexperimentalmedicalsciencethatdatesbackonlytothelaterhalfofthenineteenthcentury.Asaborderscience,pharmacodynamicsborrowsfreelyfromboththesubjectmatterandtheexperimentaltechniquesofphysiology,biochemistry,microbiology,immunology,genetics,andpathology.Itisuniquemainlyinthatattentionisfocusedonthecharacteristicsofdrugs.Asthenameimplies,thesubjectisadynamicone.Thestudentwhoattemptsmerelytomemorizethepharmacodynamicpropertiesofdrugsisforegoingoneofthebestopportunitiesforcorrelatingtheentirefieldofpreclinicalmedicine.Forexample,theactionsandeffectsofthesalureticagentscanbefullyunderstoodonlyintermsofthebasicprinciplesofrenalphysiologyandofthepathogenesisofedema.Conversely,nogreaterinsightintonormalandabnormalrenalphysiologycanbegainedthanbythestudyofthepharmacodynamicsofthesalureticagents.对药物的生化生理作用及其作用机制的研究称为药效学。这是一门实验医学，其历史仅可追溯到19世纪后半叶。作为边缘学科，药效学从生理学、生化学、微生物学、免疫学、遗传学和病理学等诸多学科的主要理论和实验技术中吸取了大量内容。该学科的独到之处主要在于其关注的要点是药物的特征。顾名思义，该科目属于动态学科。学生如果仅仅打算死记硬背药物的药效学特性的话，那他将会丧失把整个临床前期医学连为—体的这一最佳机会。例如:利盐排泄剂的活性和效用只有在肾脏生理学和水肿发病机制的基本原理的基础上才能完全理解。换句话说，只有通过对利盐排泄剂的药效学研究，才能最深人地了解肾脏生理学正常和异常两方面情况。Anotherramificationofpharmacodynamicsisthecorrelationoftheactionsandeffectsofdrugswiththeirchemicalstructures.Suchstructure-activityrelationshipsareanintegrallinkintheanalysisofdrugaction,andexploitationoftheserelationshipsamongestablishedtherapeuticagentshasoftenledtothedevelopmentofbetterdrugs.However,thecorrelationofbiologicalactivitywithchemicalstructureisusuallyofinteresttothephysicianonlywhenitprovidesthebasisforsummarizingotherpharmacologicalinformation.药效学的另一分支是研究药物活性和效用与其化学结构的相互关系。这种构效关系是分析药物作用不可或缺的部分，将这种关系应用于现有的治疗药物中往往会促使药品的更新换代。然而，只有当生物活性与化学结构的关联能够为总结其他药物学信息提供基础时，临床医师才会对此产生兴趣。Thephysicianisunderstandablyinterestedmainlyintheeffectsofdrugsinman.Thisemphasisonclinicalpharmacologyisjustified,sincetheeffectsofdrugsareoftencharacterizedbysignificantinterspeciesvariation,andsincetheymaybefurthermodifiedbydisease.Inaddition,somedrugeffects,suchasthoseonmoodandbehavior,canbeadequatelystudiedonlyinman.However,thepharmacologicalevaluationofdrugsinmanmaybelimitedfortechnical,legal,andethicalreasons,andthechoiceofdrugsmustbebasedinpartontheirpharmacologicalevaluationinanimals.Consequently,someknowledgeofanimalpharmacologyandcomparativepharmacologyishelpfulindecidingtheextenttowhichclaimsforadrugbaseduponstudiesinanimalscanbereasonablyextrapolatedtoman3.临床医师的兴趣主要集中于药物对人体的疗效。临床药理重视这一点是合理的，因为药物的作用往往因种属的明显差异而大相径庭，并可能由于疾病的作用而发生进一步改而且有些药物作用——诸如对情绪和行为的作用—只有通过人体才能得以充分研究，不过药物对人体的药理学评价可能因技术、法律及伦理道德方面的原因而受到限制，对药物的选择在一定程度上也只得以它们在动物身上所进行的药理学评价为基础。因此，动物药理学和比较药理学方面的知识有助于确定以动物实验为基础的某种新药研制何时才可用于人体。Pharmacotherapeuticsdealswiththeuseofdrugsinthepreventionandtreatmentofdisease.Manydrugsstimulateordepressbiochemicalorphysiologicalfunctioninmaninasufficientlyreproduciblemannertoprovidereliefofsymptomsor,ideally,toalterfavorablythecourseofdisease.Conversely,chemicotherapeuticagentsareusefulintherapybecausetheyhaveonlyminimaleffectsonmanbutcandestroyoreliminateparasites.Whetheradrugisusefulfortherapyiscruciallydependentuponitsabilitytoproduceitsdesiredeffectswithonlytolerableundesiredeffects.Thus,fromthestandpointofthephysicianinterestedinthetherapeuticusesofadrug,theselectivityofitseffectsisoneofitsmostimportantcharacteristics.Drugtherapyisrationallybaseduponthecorrelationoftheactionsandeffectsofdrugswiththephysiological,biochemicalprovidesoneofthebestopportunitiesforthiscorrelationduringthestudyofboththepreclinicalandtheclinicalmedicalsciences.药物治疗学涉及如何在疾病防治中使用药物。许多药物以强有力的可重现方式促进或抑制着人体的生理生化功能，进而使症状得以缓解或促使病程朝着令人满意的方向转变。相反，化疗药物的治病功能是因为其对人体作用很小但却能杀死或清除寄生生物。—种药物是否可以用于治疗，关键取决于其能否产生预期的治疗效果，同时其副作用在可容忍的范围内。这样，从关注药物疗效的临床医师的观点来看，药物作用的选择性便是其最重要特点之一。药物的活性和疗效与疾病诸方面——生理、生化、微生物、免疫和行为——的联系理所当然地成为药物治疗的基础。药效学便为临床前期和临床期医学研究这种联系提供了一个绝好的机会。Toxicologyisthataspectofpharmacologythatdealswiththeadverseeffectsofdrugs.Itisconcernednotonlywithdrugsusedintherapybutalsowiththemanyotherchemicalsthatmayberesponsibleforhousehold,environmental,orindustrialintoxication.Theadverseeffectsofthepharmacologicalagentsemployedintherapyareproperlyconsideredanintegralpartoftheirtotalpharmacology.Thetoxiceffectsofotherchemicalsaresuchanextensivesubjectthatthephysicianmustusuallyconfinehisattentiontothegeneralprinciplesapplicabletotheprevention,recognition,andtreatmentofdrugpoisoningsofanycause.毒理学是研究药物副作用的药理学分支。它不仅涉及治疗药物，还涉及引起家庭、环境或工业中毒的许多其他化学物质。治疗性药物的副作用应被视为整个药理学的一个组成部分。其他化学物质的毒副作用范围太广，临床医师通常只能将注意力放在预防、确认和处理各种药物中毒的基本原则上。翻译1)药物作用于人体的科学叫药理学，研究这门学问的科学家便是药理学家。药理学不是一门能够独立研究的科学，而是与其它学科紧密相关的。药理学家不仅要了解人体内进行的正常反应过程，还应懂得机体功能是怎样受疾病影响的。Thescienceoftheeffectsofdrugsonthebodyiscalledpharmacology,andthescientistswhostudyitarepharmacologists.Pharmacologyisnotasciencethatcanbestudiedonitsown,butthatcloselyrelatedtootherbranchesofscience.Pharmacologistsshouldnotonlyunderstandthenormalprocessesthattakeplaceinthebody,butknowhowthefunctionsofthebodyareaffectedbydisease.2)医生和医学生对药理学的理解和要求没有其定义范畴那么广泛。临床医生主要关心药品药理学所提供的合理临床用药的理论基础，他们的主要兴趣在于药物对人类疾病的预防、这段及治疗，或者在避孕方面所起的作用。Forphysiciansandmedicalstudents,thescopeofpharmacologyisnotsoexpansiveasitscommondefinition.Theclinicianisinterestedprimarilyindragsthatareusefulintheprevention,diagnosis,andtreatmentofhumandisease,orinthepreventionofpregnancy.3)所有医生都应该负起责任解决药品滥用所引起的各种社会问题。药物用得恰当，将是人类的一大福音，用得不当，则可能毁了人类。病人（特别是老年病人）经常性使用一种以上治疗药物的话，往往会发生产生毒性的药物相互作用。Allphysiciansshouldsharetheresponsibilitytoresolvekindsofsociologicalproblemscausedbytheabuseofdrugs.Properlyused,drugsaregreatblessingtomankind;improperlyused,theycoulddestroyhumanrace.Whenapatient,particularlytheelderlyisprescribedfrequentlytotakemorethanonetherapeuticagent,druginteractionsresultingintoxicitywilloccur.4)以前，医师必须具备很广泛的植物学知识，因为他要懂得挑选适当的植物的能力和技巧，并将它们制备成简单的草药。现在，由于大多数天然药物被高度提纯，且与合成的化学药物无甚区别，所以临床医生对生药学的兴趣也相应减弱。Atonetime,itwasessentialforthephysiciantohavebroadbotanicalknowledge,becausetheyhadtopossesstheabilityandskilltoselectproperplantsfromwhichtopreparehisowncrudemedicinalpreparations.5)对药物的生化生理作用及其活性机制的研究叫做药效学，该学科的独到之处主要在于其关注的要点是药物的特征。药效学作为一门边缘学科，大量借鉴了生理学、生物化学、免疫学、病理学等学科的理论和实验技术。Thestudyofbiochemicalandphysiologicaleffectsofdragsandtheirmechanismsofactionistermedaspharmacodynamics,whoseuniquenessliesmainlyinthatitsattentionisfocusedonthecharacteristicsofthedrug.Asabroaderscience，itborrowsfreelyfromboththetheoriesandexperimentaltechniquesofphysiology,biochemistry,immunology,andpathology.Unit8TextAWhatAnalyticalChemistsDo?分析化学家做什么？Analyticalchemistryisconcernedwiththechemicalcharacterizationofmatterandtheanswertotwoimportantquestions:whatisit(qualitative)andhowmuchisit(quantitative).Chemicalsmakeupeverythingweuseorconsume,andknowledgeofthechemicalcompositionofmanysubstancesisimportantinourdailylives.Analyticalchemistryplaysanimportantroleinnearlyallaspectsofchemistry,forexample,agricultural,clinical,environmental,forensic,manufacturing,metallurgical,andpharmaceuticalchemistry.Thenitrogencontentofafertilizerdeterminesitsvalue.Foodsmustbeanalyzedforcontaminants(e.g.,pesticideresidues)andforessentialnutrients(e.g.vitamincontent).Theairincitiesmustbeanalyzedforcarbonmonoxide.Bloodglucosemustbemonitoredindiabetics(and,infact,mostdiseases;arediagnosedbychemicalanalysis).Thepresenceoftraceelementsfromgunpowderonamurderdefendant'shandwillproveagunwasfired.Thequalityofmanufacturedproductsoftendependsonproperchemicalproportions,andmeasurementoftheconstituentsisanecessarypartofqualitycontrol.Thecarboncontentofsteelwilldetermineitsquality.Thepurityofdrugswilldeterminetheirefficacy.分析化学是研究物质的化学特征并能回答两个重要问题:是什么(定性)以及有多少(定量)。我们所使用和消耗的一切都是由化学物质组成的，所以日常生活中了解物质的化学成分是非常重要的。分析化学几乎在化学的各个领域都起着至关重要的作用，比如农业、临床、环境、法医、制造业、冶金以及药物化学。化学肥料中氮的含量决定了其价值。对食物而言，必须分析其中的污染物(比如杀虫剂残留）和必要的营养成分(如维生素含量)。对城市空气而言，必须分析其中的一氧化碳含量。糖尿病患者需检测血糖(事实上，大多数疾病都是通过化学分析来诊断的)。谋杀嫌疑犯手上火药中痕量元素的存在可以证明手枪是开过火的。出厂产品的质量取决于合适的化学成分比例，因此对组分的测定是质量控制中必不可少的一个环节。钢铁中碳的含量决定其质量，药物的纯度决定其疗效。WhatisAnalyticalScience?什么是分析科学？Theabovedescriptionofanalyticalchemistryprovidesanoverviewofthedisciplineofanalyticalchemistry.Therehavebeenvariousattemptstomorespecificallydefinethediscipline.ThelateCharlesN.Reilleysaid:"Analyticalchemistryiswhatanalyticalchemistsdo"Thedisciplinehasexpandedbeyondtheboundsofjustchemistry,andmanyhaveadvocatedusingthenameanalyticalsciencetodescribethefield.ThistermisusedinaNationalScienceFoundationreportfromworkshopson―CurricularDevelopmentsintheAnalyticalSciences.‖Eventhistermfallsshortofrecognitionoftheroleofinstrumentationdevelopmentandapplication.Onesuggestionisthatweusethetermanalyticalscienceandtechnology.通过以上描述可以对分析化学这门学科有大致的了解，为更加明确地定义这门学科，人们也有过多种尝试。已故的曾说过“分析化学家从事的工作就是分析化学”:。这门学科的发展已跨越了纯化学的界限，许多人已提倡使用“分析科学”来描述该领域。在名为“分析科学的课程发展”的工作组所做的国家科学基金报告中已使用这一名词。但是该名词忽视了仪器发展和应用的作用，有人建议使用“分析科学和技术”这一名词。TheFederationofEuropeanChemicalSocietiesheldacontesttodefineanalyticalchemistry,andthefollowingsuggestionbyK.Cammannwasselected.AnalyticalChemistryprovidesthemethodsandtoolsneededforinsightintoourmaterialworld„foransweringfourbasicquestionsaboutamaterialsample:●What?●Where?●Howmuch?●Whatarrangement,structureorform?欧洲化学会联盟曾举行了一次会议来定义分析化学，所提出的如下建议被采纳：分析化学提供了洞察物质世界所需要的方法和工具，它回答了关于某一物质样品的四个基本问题：•是什么？•在哪里？•有多少？•是何种排列、结构或形态？TheDivisionofAnalyticalChemistryoftheAmericanChemicalSocietyprovidesacomprehensivedefinitionofanalyticalchemistry,whichmaybefoundontheirwebsite.Itisreproducedinmostparthere:AnalyticalChemistryseekseverimprovedmeansofmeasuringthechemicalcompositionofnaturalandartificialmaterials.Thetechniquesofthisscienceareusedtoidentifythesubstanceswhichmaybepresentinamaterialandtodeterminetheexactamountsoftheidentifiedsubstance.美国化学会的“分析化学分类”为分析化学提供了一个全面的定义，可以在其网站査到，此处摘录部分内容：分析化学探索不断改进的方法，用以检测天然和人造材料的化学组成。此种科学的技术手段用来鉴别可能存在于一种材料中的物质以及测定给定物质的准确含量。Analyticalchemistsworktoimprovethereliabilityofexistingtechniquestomeetthedemandsforbetterchemicalmeasurementswhichariseconstantlyinoursociety.Theyadoptprovenmethodologiestonewkindsofmaterialsortoanswernewquestionsabouttheircompositionandtheirreactivitycarryoutresearchtodiscovercompletelynewprinciplesofmeasurementandareattheforefrontoftheutilizationofmajordiscoveries,suchaslasersandmicrochipdevicesforpracticalpurposes.Theireffortsservetheneedsofmanyfields:分析化学家致力于提高已有技术的可靠性以更好地满足社会中频繁出现的化学检测的需求。他们将已证实的方法学应用于新型材料，或回答关于其组成及反应机制的新问题。他们开展研究，探索全新的检测原理，站在了将激光和微芯片等重大发现应用于实际用途的最前沿。他们的努力满足了许多领域的需求：-Inmedicine,analyticalchemistryisthebasisforclinicallaboratorytestswhichhelpphysiciansdiagnosediseaseandchartprogressinrecovery.-Inindustry,analy