古典时代的转变

TheTransformationoftheClassicalEra

TheConquestbyAlexandertheGreatThepreservationoftheHellenicachievementsGreecefelljustasitculminated,yetspreadtriumphantlyjustasitsubmitted.SpreadingoftheGreekIntellectualAchievementcentersofculturallearning:Greekinheritancesurvivedandflourished.amassiveculturalfusion.Alexander’sempiredidnotholdtogether.Romeemergedasthecenterofanewempire.GreekhighcultureTheeducatedclassofthegreaterMediterraneanworldTheRomansContents1CrosscurrentsoftheHellenisticMatrixATheDeclineandPreservationoftheGreekMindBAstronomyCAstrologyDNeoplatonism2TheEmergenceofChristianityERome

A.TheDeclineandPreservationoftheGreekMindAftertheAlexander’sconquest,theHellenisticworldextendedallthewayfromthewesternMediterraneantocentralAsia.TheinitialexpansionofGreekcultureeastwardwasintimecomplementedbyastronginfluxofOrientalreligiousandpoliticalcurrentstotheWest.enrichedbythisnewinfluxaswerethenon-GreekculturesbytheHellenicexpansion.lostsomethingofitsearlierconfidentlucidity(洞察力)andboldoriginality.CosmopolitanismofthenewcivilizationThebreakupoftheoldorderConstantpoliticalandsocialupheavalPhilosophicalSchoolsintheHellenisticEraStoicism斯多葛派Epicureanism伊壁鸠鲁派Skepticism怀疑主义Neoplatonism新柏拉图主义哲学的转变哲学从纯粹思辨退缩回直接的实践-在思辨理论哲学上没有重大贡献，但撷取诸家理论，以为伦理学的基础；实践哲学萎缩为个人的伦理学-核心关注的问题：如何确保个人的幸福，政治实践仅为附带的焦点，而智慧的追求则只是手段。晚期古希腊哲学的基本方向

关键问题：如何安身立命，确保个人的幸福斯多葛学派：专注践行內在的德性，不为外部境遇所动摇伊壁鸠鲁学派：专注于可掌握的快乐怀疑论学派：悬搁任何正反判断，消解问题新柏拉图主义：寻找回归神圣的「太一」、上帝

StoicismssdfdsfsfZenoofCitium(基提翁的芝诺）AthensIntheearlythirdcenturyB.C.Chrysippus(克里西波斯）systematizedZenoofCitiumChrysippusstoicismAllrealitywaspervadedbyanintelligentdivineforce,theLogosoruniversalreasonwhichorderedallthings.Mancouldachievegenuinehappinessonlybyattuninghislifeandcharactertothisall-powerfulprovidentialwisdom.TobefreewastoliveinconformitywithGod’swill,andwhatmatteredfinallyinlifewasthevirtuousstateofthesoul,notthecircumstancesoftheouterlife.TheStoicsage,markedbyinnerserenity,sternnessinself-discipline,andconscientiousperformanceofduty,wasindifferenttothevagariesofexternalevents.AllhumanbeingssharedinthedivineLogos,allweremembersofauniversalhumancommunity.Epicureanismmankindmustovercomeitssuperstitiousbeliefinthefickle,anthropomorphicgodsofpopulartradition.oneneednotfearthegodsdeath,theextinctionofconsciousnessandnotapreludetoapainfulpunishment.happinessinthislifeSkepticismnotruthscouldbeknowntobecertainandthattheonlyappropriatephilosophicalstancewasthecompletesuspensionofjudgment.conflict,somecriterion,furthercriterion,aninfiniteregressofsuchcriteriapeoplewhobelievedtheycouldknowrealityweresubjecttoconstantfrustrationandunhappinessinlife.conclusionWhileimportantandattractiveintheirdifferentways,theseseveralphilosophiesdidnotentirelysatisfytheHellenisticspiritdivinerealitysciencetheHellenisticerawasanexceptionallyrichagewithseveralremarkableandindispensableculturalaccomplishmentstoitscredit.recognitionoftheearlierGreekachievementanditsconsequentpreservationoftheclassicsfromHomertoAristotle.HumanisticscholarshipEducationAstronomyB.Astronomy欧几里得阿波罗尼奥斯阿基米德喜帕恰斯托勒密DevelopmentofmathematicalastronomyEudoxus(欧多克索斯):interconnectedhomocentricspheresPythagoreans(毕达哥拉斯学派)：madetheradicalsuggestionthattheEarthmoved.Heraclides(赫拉克利德斯)：thediurnalmovementoftheheavenswasactuallycausedbytheEarth’srotatingonitsaxis,andthatMercuryandVenus,whichalwaysappearedclosetotheSun,didsobecausetheyrevolvedabouttheSunratherthantheEarth.Aristarchus(阿利斯塔克)：theEarthandalltheplanetsrevolvedaroundtheSun,andthattheSunliketheoutersphereofstars,remainedstationary.Thesevariousmodelsweregenerallyrejected,however,forsoundmathematicalandphysicalreasons.ThemajorityofHellenisticastronomersdecidedinfavorofanEarth-centereduniverse,andcontinuedworkingwithvariousgeometricalmodelsforexplainingtheplanetarypositions.Ptolemy(托勒密)codifiedtheseeffortsinthesecondcenturyA.D.ThebasicstructureoftheAristoteliancosmologyastronomers’actualobservationsoftheplanetsWhichdemandedthattheplanetsMoveuniformlyinperfectcirclesAroundacentralimmobileEarth,WhichappearedtomovewithvaryingSpeeds,directions,anddegreesofBrightness.PtolemyoutlinethefollowingschemeBabyloniancontinuedobservationsandlinearcomputationaltechniquesGreekgeometryTheworkoftheGreekastronomersApolloniusandHipparchusTheoutermostrevolvingsphereofthefixedstarsdailycarriedtheentireheavenswestwardabouttheEarth.Ptolemy’scompoundcirclesTogivethefirstsystematicquantitativeaccountofallthecelestialmotionsSynthesizedPtolemaic-AristotelianuniverseThefundamentalworldconceptionAstrologyFormationunderstanding:theheavensasthelocusofthegodsdevelopingastronomyPtolemytheclassicalera’sculminatingsystematizeraunifiedsynthesisofclassicalastrologicaltheoryInteractionofastrologyandastronomyHowdidastrologywork?“asabove,sobelow”theconceptionwasnowplacedintoaGreekframeworkofmathematicalandqualitativeprinciplesPredictioncollectivities&individualAdoptedprinciplesthestructureofthecosmosanditsintrinsicrelationtothemicrocosm,manAnarchetypalunitybetweenagentandreceiverAristotelianphysicsScientificframeworkTheinfluencesofonpeopleOutlookonlifehumanlifewasnotruledbycapriciouschance,butbydestinymancouldunderstandhisfateandactwithanewsenseofcosmicsecurityTheonebeliefsystemRadiationandacceptanceDifferentinterpretationsPtolemyandhiscolleaguesAusefulscienceApplicationtoterrestrialandhumanactivityInherentinexactnessandsusceptibilityPossessedarationalfoundationandfirmprinciplesofoperationGreekandRomanStoicsAmorephilosophicalspiritSignifyingthefundamentaldeterminismofhumanlifebythecelestialbodiesCongenialtotheirworldviewThemysteryreligionsTheplanets’dominationoverhumanlifeApromiseofliberationPlatonistsThecelestialconfigurationasindicativeratherthancausalMancouldplayanactiveroleinthecosmicschemeNeoplatonismOnefieldofthoughtsoughttobridgetheHellenisticschismbetweentherationalphilosophiesandthemysteryreligionsThedevelopmentofPlato’sthoughtThehighesttranscendentprinciple:“theOne”(“太一”)Newemphasison“theflightfromthebody”(“超脱肉体”)LocatingtheForm(型)withinthedivinemindConcernfortheproblemofevilanditsrelationtomatter

Plotinus(柏罗丁)Formulateda“Neoplatonic”philosophyAristotelianthought&amysticalelementGreekrationalphilosophyEndpointAnotherreligiousspirit,asuprarationalmysticismAnewera

Thethree“hypostases”(“实体”)TheOneThedivineIntellectorNounsTheWorldSoulTheOne(太一)TheNeoplatoniccosmosInfiniteinbeingAlsocalledtheGood(善)InahierarchicalseriesofgradationsmovingawayfromthisontologicalcentertotheextremelimitsofthepossibleThethree“hypostases”arenotliteralentitiesbutratherspiritualdispositions,butratherdifferentstatesofbeingofthedivineMind.ThematerialwordInnegativetermsInpositivetermsItreflectsonahigherlevelinthespiritualIntellect’sworldofFormsThenatureofmanissoul-in-bodyPotentialaccesstothehighestintellectualandspiritualrealmsMan’srationalsoulcanreflectthetranscendentFormsTheentireuniverseExistsinaprocessofemanationandreturnThetaskofphilosophersOvercomethehumanbondagetothephysicalrealmbymoralandintellectualself-disciplineandpurificationPlotinus’neoplatonismRationalistandidealistmetaphysicsPrecision&proseBasinghisphilosophyonthePlatonicdoctrineoftranscendentIdeasThefinalexpressionofclassicalpaganphilosophyConclusionNeoplatonismandastrologytranscendedResultsofpenetratingandinterminglingEnduringandhiddeninfluenceAlthoughtheirpopularity,powerfulforceshadbeguntoimpingeThetransformationThelattereffortsofHellenicculturelackedsomething.Hellenisticcivilizationseemedremarkablefor:VarietybutforceWorldlyintelligencebutinspiredgeniusSustaining&elaborationbutoriginationofnewonesTheculturaloutlookwasunsettledHumansubordinationtotheoverwhelmingpowersofthesupernaturalTheHellenicimpulsewasfadingRomeWhyclassicalcivilizationwouldflourish?spurredbytheRepublic’smilitaristicandlibertarianethosnourishedbythePaxRomanaExtensionGeography:theentireMediterraneanbasinandalargepartofEuropeCivilization:theknownworldWhycoulditbepossible?JuliusCaesar:militarytactics&politicalgeniusThecontributionforclassicalachievementsBroughttheLatinlanguagetoaneloquentmaturityHumanitasGreekmythology&RomanmythologyRomanlegalthoughtTheweaknessoftheRomancultureThelossofvitalityoftheRomanethosDiminishingofmostscientificactivityLatinlanguagebegantowaneFaithinhumanprogressdisappearedFactorsonRome’sfallGovernment:oppressiveGenerals:overambitiousIncursions:constantAristocracy:decadentReligiouscrosscurrentsInflationDiseasesAdwindlingpopulation2.TheEmergenc