水利水电工程专业英语-水工结构篇

水利水电工程专业英语-—水工结构篇1。PlanningApproachanditsPhysicalFactors规划方法和物理因素Damsareoneofthegroupsofimportantcivilengineeringworkconstructedbymanforhisphysical，economic,andenvironmentalbetterment.Thislistalsoincludeswaterways,highways,bridges,pipelines，electricaltransmissionlines,dikesandlevees,railroads,tunnels，jetties，breakwaters,docks,irrigationstructures，recreationallakes,andothers。大坝是重要的土建工程组之一，由人们以改善其物质、经济和环境的目的而建设。其中还包括航道、公路、桥梁、管道、输电线路、堤坝和防洪堤、铁路、隧道、导流堤、防波堤、码头、灌溉建筑物、旅游湖泊，等等。Inalmosteverywaterprojectplanorsituationoneormoredamsareimportantelementsofaprojectplan.However,itisseldomthatthedamisthesoleoronlyfacility.Inafloodcontrolplan，adamandreservoirmaybetheonlyprojectworks，butitismorelikelyaccompaniedadvantageouslywithleveesandotherchannelcontrolworks.Inwatersupply-irrigation，municipal，industrial,anddomestic—andinpowergeneration,damsareoneofacombinationofprojectfeaturesneededtoaccomplishthedesiredproject.Insuchcases,thedamcannotbejustifiedindependentlyoftheotherprojectfacilities。Tobeeconomically,financially,socially，andenvironmentallyjustifieditmustbeevaluatedjointlywiththegroupcombinationofprojectfeaturesandthetotalplanevaluatedandjudgedastoitsmerit。Planningforadamisonepartoftheplanningprocessforthetotalprojectobjective.Thelocation,size，anddesignofadamwillbeinfluenced,andoftencontrolled，bytheselectionoftheattainableandbestwarrantedoverallprojectplan。Physicalfactorsofplanformulationincludethefollowings:在几乎所有的水工程计划或选址中,一个或多个大坝对于一个项目计划来说是非常重要的因素。但是，大坝也很少是唯一的设施。在一个防洪计划中，一个大坝和水库可能是仅有的工作工程,但是它很可能更有效地配有堤坝和其他渠道控制工程。在灌溉供水、市政、工业和生活以及发电中，大坝是为了达到设计目的的项目功能组合之一。因此,大坝孤立于其他的工程设施是不合理的.为了从经济、财政、社会和环境方面证明其合理性,就必须结合项目特点和整个计划对其优点进行评估和判断。对大坝的规划是对整个项目目标规划过程的一部分。大坝的坝址、规模和设计将会受到可达到的和最佳选择的整个项目计划的影响，并且经常受到其控制。计划制定的物理因素包括以下几个方面：WaterSupplyAvailableforDevelopment1。1可供水量Exceptforfloodcontrolprojectswateristheessentialcommodity；infloodcontrolprojectsitssuddenexcessistheproblem.Theoccurrenceofsurfacerunoffstreamflowsresultsfromweatherphenomenawhichareunderstoodonlyingeneralprinciple.Forwaterprojectplanningpurposesrelianceisplacedonthepremiseofrecurringstreamflowswithfuturequantitiesandvariationssimilartothosethathaveoccurredinthepast。Directmeasurementsofflowsofsomestreamsoverseveraldecades,togetherwithmeasurementsofprecipitationoverperiodsofacenturyormoreatsomelocations,supportthepremise.Acknowledgingthatamoreextremefloodordroughtcanoccurthanhasactuallybeenmeasuredorobservedinafewrecenttimeperiods，thehistoricalmeasurementsofstreamflowsareacceptedasthebestavailableforecastsofstreamflowsuppliesforwaterconservationdevelopments.Theoriesandprinciplesofprobabilityofvariationofstreamflowquantitiesaresometimesapplied,butmostcommonlyanactualrecordofsomeyearsofdurationisused，unmodified，forcalculatingthewaterconservationaccomplishmentofaplan.Wheremeasurementshavenotbeenmade，oronlyaveryfewmade,ataspecificdamsiteitispossibletoestimateorsynthesizestreamflowstatisticsatanydamsitebyreliablecorrelationmethods.除防洪工程外,水都是必需品；在防洪工程中洪水突然过量则是问题.地表径流河流流量的发生是由仅在一般原则下理解的天气现象引起的。水工程规划目的的依据是基于经常性水流且其未来的水量和变化与过去已经发生过的相类似的前提下。该前提可以靠某些河流径流几十年间的直接测量以及某些地点一个世纪或更长时间的降雨测量来支持。认识到可能发生一个比近段时期所测量或观测更加极端的洪水或干旱，所以河流流量的历史测量值是对水保持发展中河流流量供应现有最佳的预测。径流量变化概率的理论和原则有时是被应用的，但是更常见的是应用多年实际记录、未经修改的值，来计算一个计划中水保持的成就。在某些无测量或少测量数据地区,在某个特定坝址，根据可靠的相关方法可以估计或综合退出任何坝址处的径流数据.1。2FloodFlows1。2洪水流量Becauseoftheenormousdamageorpotentialdamagecausedbyafloodofthemagnitudethatoccursonceinahundredyearsorless，streamgagingrecordsof10,20or30yearsareinadequate,althoughofsomeuse，inplanningfloodcontrolprojectsorforthespillwaydesignofanydam。Inadditiontoanyactualmeasurementsofpeakfloodflows（usuallydifficulttoobtainevenwhenastreamisbeinggaged）theprojectplannerusesothertechniquesofestimatingthemagnitudeoffloods。Theseinclude（1）observationsofhighwatermarksevidencedbypreviousfloodsandcomputationsoftheprobableflowfromfloodchanneldimensions，（2）recordsofactualmeasurements（includingdurationtime）ofhighrainfallintensitiesatweatherstationsinthewatershedareaaboveadamsiteornearestcomparablelocation，appliedtocomputationsofrunoffresultingtherefrom。因为由百年一遇或更低的洪水所造成的巨大损害或潜在损害,10、20或30年的流量计量记录是不够的，尽管其在规划防洪工程或在任意大坝溢洪道的设计中有些用处.除了洪峰流量的实际测量值（通常难以获得,即使在流量被测量时）外，项目规划者使用其他评估洪水规模的技术。这些包括：（1）由此前洪水提供的高水位标志的观测值并由此计算行洪通道内的可能的流量，（2）在流域中坝址以上或最近的可比较地点气象站高降雨强度的实际测量记录（包括持续时间），并由此应用到径流的计算中。1.3LocationsofProjectSites1.3项目地点位置Twoprincipalfactorsdeterminethelocationofwaterconservationprojectfacilities:（1）theareasofwaterserviceneed,and(2)locationorlocationsofwatersupplyavailablefordevelopment.Theconnectinglinkisawaterconveyancefacility。Wherethewaterconveyancedistanceislong，orwherepumpingisrequired，thecostofconveyanceisimportantinchoosinglocationsforwaterconservationdevelopment。Itisdesirable,wherepossible，tolocatethesourceatahigherelevationthantheserviceareatoavoidpumpingcosts.Obviously,thereisalsoeconomyinhavingawatersourceneartheplaceofuse。确定蓄水工程设施有两个主要因素：(1)蓄水地区,及(2)可供开发供水的地点。二者的连接环节是输水设施。在输水距离远或是需要提水的地点,考虑开发蓄水地点时输水成本很重要。最好是在可行的地区将水源设置在比受水地区高的地点，这样可以避免提水成本。很明显，将水源设置在用水地区附近也很经济。Thesameconsiderationappliestoselectionofhydroelectricpowergenerationsites,exceptthatelevationisnotafactorinpowertransmission.同样的考虑也适用于水电站厂址的选取，除了高程不是电力传输的影响因素。1。4SuitabilityofAvailableDamSites1。4可用坝址的适用性Thesaying“youcanbuildadamanywhereifyouspendenoughmoney"onlymeansthatsomesitesareextremelyunsatisfactory。Obviously，asiteshouldbeinanarrowsectionofastreamchannelandwherebothabutmentshavesufficientheightfortheneed。Thefoundation，includingabutments,shouldbeofrockorconsolidatedmaterialssufficientlystrongtosupportthestructureandtheymustbewatertightorsonearlysothatexcessleakagecanbepreventedbysealinganycracksorfissuresinthefoundationwithagroutingmaterialorclosingtheleakagepathsbyplacingablanketofimperviousmaterialinthereservoirareaupstreamfromthedamsite.“如果你花足够的钱，你就可以在任何地方建坝"这个说法仅仅意味着有些坝址相当不令人满意。很明显,一个坝址应该在河流通道的狭窄地段,并且两个坝肩都应有满足需求足够的高度。坝基，包括坝肩,应该为足够坚硬以支撑其结构的石质或是固结材料,并且它们必须是防水的或渗透性较弱，因此可通过用灌浆材料将坝基的裂隙和裂缝密封以阻止过量的渗流,或者在坝址上游库区设置不透水层以关闭渗流通道.Adequategeologicalinspectionsoffoundationabutments，spillwayandbypasstunnelsitesarenecessarytoprovideassuranceofsuitability.要确保适用性，必须提供足够的坝基、坝肩、溢洪道和旁路隧道地址足够的地质核查。Obviously,adamsiteistobeavoidedifitisonorveryclosetoaknownactiveearthquakefault。显然，坝址要避免安排在一个已知的活断层上或其附近.Sinceadamisamassivestructureitisnecessarytolocateanadequatesupplyofconstructionmaterialswithineconomicalhaulingdistancesofthedamsite.Dependinguponthetypeofdam，thesematerialsmayincludeaggregatesforconcretemanufacture,imperviousearthmaterials,perviousmaterials，androckforrockfillsorriprap。由于坝体结构庞大，必须要将足够的建筑材料供给设置在坝址的经济运距范围内。根据不同的坝型，这些材料可能包括水泥制造类、防渗土料、渗透性材料，以及用于堆石或护坡的石料。1。5SuitabilityofReservoirSites1。5库址的适应性Toobtaineconomicalstoragecapacityareservoirsiteshouldbewideincomparisontothedamsiteandshouldbeonastreamhavingaloworgentlegradienttoobtainalongreservoirinproportiontotheheightofthedam.Geologicalconsiderationsgenerallyrequirethatthesitenotbeonformationsthatleakexcessively,andthattherenotbeanyriskoflargelandslidesintothereservoir。Considerationshouldbegiventoanyimportantmineraldepositsintheareawhichmaybeofcommercialvalueeitheratpresentoratsomefuturetime。Theminingofsometypesofmineraldepositsaboveareservoirsitemayhaveacceleratedleachingandsolutionofchemicalswhichcanbeconcentratedinreservoirstoragewithobjectionableeffects。为获得经济库容库址应该比坝址宽,且应在一个坡度低缓的河段中，以获得与大坝高度成正比的狭长水库。地址考虑一般要求库址不应设置在大渗流构造上，并且不应有任何大的库内滑坡的风险。应考虑该地区所有现在或未来有经济价值的重要矿藏。库址上某些类型矿藏的开采可能会加速渗流和化学物质的溶解，它们可能在水库中聚集而起到消极的效果.Manyotherwiseattractivereservoirsitesareonvaluablelandbeingusedforotherpurposes:agriculture,forestry,andhabitationbypeople。Theremaybeimportantroads，railroads，pipelines,andtransmissionlinesthroughasite。Thenecessaryrelocationofsuchfacilitiesandinhabitantsandthelossofthelandusemaybeamajorandoverridingcostofaspecificdamandreservoirplan。Adequateplanformulationrequiresthatconsiderationbegivenandcomparisonsmadeofallreasonablealternativedamandreservoirsitesbeforeselectingtheprojectplan。此外还有有吸引力的库址位于有其他用途的宝贵的土地上：农业、林业以及用于人们居住.那里可能有穿过该地的重要的道路、铁路、管线和传输线路。这些设施和居民必要的重新安置及土地利用的损失可能你是某一具体大坝和水库方案的重要或压倒一切的成本。充足的方案编制须要在选择项目方案前考虑并比较所有合理的坝址和库址。1。6PhysicalSitelimitations1。6物理站点的限制Topographicorgeologicalconditionsfrequentlyimposeapracticalorsafelimitontheheightofadam。Thequalityandquantityofavailableconstructionmaterialsmaysetthelimitwhichadesignerwillnotexceedforsafetyandstabilityofthestructure.Thecontinuingworldwideexperiencesinconstructionandoperationofhighdamsprovideguidelinesonpracticalmaximumheights.Amongtheconsiderationsaretheproblemsofconstructingandmaintainingspillwaysandoutletcontrolvalvesoperatingtodissipatetheenergyofhigh-headwaterdischarges。地形和地质条件经常会对大坝的高度施加实际或安全限制。可获得的建筑材料的质量和数量可能会设置限制，设计师出于对结构安全性和稳定性的考虑不会超过这个限制。世界范围内高坝的建设和运营的不断增长的经验为实用最高高度提供了指导。建设和维护溢洪道以及高水头泄流消能的出口控制阀操作问题均在考虑之中.Practicalphysicalsizelimitationsofreservoirsmaybethelimitingelevationsofthereservoirrimortheriskoflandslidesifinducedbyhigherstoragelevels。Theotherlimitationsareessentiallyeconomicandsocialones—increaseddisplacementofpeople，relocationcosts，andlossoflanduse.Thereisalsothewatersupplylimitation.Areservoirmightbeconstructedsolargethatitwouldneverbefilledwhilemakingordinaryandusualwaterwithdrawalsfortheprojectfunctions.水库实际物理尺寸的限制可能是水库边缘高程的限制或由高储水水位诱发的滑坡风险.其他的限制基本上都是经济和社会因素—-移民安置、重置费和土地利用损失的增加。还有供水限制。一个水库可以被建的足够大，以至于当实现项目功能中一般和日常取水时它永远不会被蓄满.1。7SedimentationRates1。7淤积速率Everystreamcarriessediment;everyreservoirretainssediment。Intime,everyon-streamreservoirwillfillwithsedimentandloseitswater—storagefunction。每条河都携带沉淀物；每座水库都积存沉积物。随着时间的推移，每一个在流水库将被泥沙填满而失去蓄水的功能。Sedimenttransportationratesvarygreatlyindifferentstreams,dependingontheratesandvolumesofstreamflowsbutmoreimportantlyontheerosionconditionsofthewatershed.不同河流中输沙率变化很大，这取决于径流流速和流量,但是更重要的是流域内的水土流失状况。Stream-bornesedimentsoccurintwotypes-suspendedsedimentsandbedload.Suspendedsedimentssettleslowlyinstillwaterandareconsiderablydispersedoverareservoir,hencenearthedam.Thecoarserbedloadsedimentsarecarriedbythehighervelocityflowsandaretrappedinareservoirnearthestreamentrypoints。Oneconcernaboutsuchdepositsisthat,inadditiontoreducingreservoirvolume,theymaycauseastreamchanneltoaggradejustabovethepointwhereitentersthereservoir,possiblyrequiringextraclearancetobebuiltonabridgeorotherstructureatthatsite.河流夹带的泥沙有两种类型——悬移质泥沙和推移质泥沙.悬移质泥沙在静水中慢慢沉淀并大范围分布在水库中，因此距离大坝较近。粗糙的推移质泥沙被高速水流携带并被限制在水库水流入口点附近。关于这种沉积的一个考虑，除了减少库容外，它们还可能造成流道淤积高于它进入水库的地点，可能需要在该点的桥梁或其它结构上建造额外的清理设施。Withrespecttoplanselectionandprojectdesignsthefollowingguidelinesapply（:1）Wherethereisachoice，avoidconstructingstorageonastreamhavinglargesedimentloads；（2）Provide，aspartofthegrossreservoirvolume,spacefortheaccumulationofsedimentinestimatedamountatleastequaltotheintendedeconomiclifeofthereservoir-usually100yearsormore；（3）Designthereservoiroutletatthedamatleastashighastheexpectedsiltaccumulationlevelatthepoint（theoutletmaybehigheriftheplancallsformaintainingahigherminimumreservoirpoolforanypurpose）;（4）Provideoutletsatmorethanonelevelifcostisnotexcessive；（5）Consider，intheprojectplan,thepossibilityandthesuitabilityofsitesforconstructingsedimentdetentionbasinsshortdistanceabovethereservoir；（6）Considerthemerits,possiblemethods，andcostsofprovidingwatershedprotectionandmanagementagainstacceleratederosion.以下准则适用于方案选择和项目设计：（1）当有其他选择时，避免在一条含沙量大的河流上建设水库；（2）作为总库容的一部分，提供至少与水库设计经济寿命（100年或以上）内的预计的泥沙淤积量相同的空间；（3）在大坝处设计水库出口，至少与该处预期的泥沙淤积具有相同的高度（如果方案处于某种目的要求保持较高的最小库容,那么出口可能会更高）;(4)在不超成本的条件下设置超过一个高程；(5)在项目方案中考虑在水库上游短距离处建设泥沙滞蓄区的可能性和适合性；(6)考虑提供控制水土流失加剧的流域保护和管理的有点、可能的方法及成本。2。SelectionofDamSitesandSizes坝址及大坝规模的选择Thedamsitesaredeterminedbythefunctionsoftheproject.Theexactsitewithinthegenerallocationmustbedeterminedbycarefulprojectconsiderationandsystematicstudies。Uponcompletionofthefeasibility-gradeinvestigationsthesitesandthesizeofprojectdamshavebeenprovisionallyselected.Itisprobablethattheseselectionswillprovetobethefinalones，butthepossibilitiesremainofmakingsomefurtheradjustmentsinthefinal,pre-constructionphasesofinvestigations。Anadjustmentofcapacityofastoragereservoirmayprovetobenecessary；this，oranynewdesigndatamaydisclosetheneedofchangingtheaxislocationofthedameventhoughthereservoirsiteremainsthesame。Latestcriteriaontheprojectfunctionalrequirementsofadiversionorafterbaydammayrequireanadjustmentofdamheight,orinanexceptionalcaseachangeofthesite.坝址由工程的功能决定。大致位置内的确切坝址必须经过细致的工程考虑和系统的研究确定。当可行性阶段研究完成时，大坝工程的坝址和规模就暂时被选定了。这些选择可能会被证明是最终选择，但是这种可能性也要有最后进一步的调整,即施工前阶段的研究.水库库容的调整可能被证明是必需的；而这，或者任何新的设计数据可能显示有必要改变坝轴线的位置,即使水库位置保持不变.关于导流或尾水池坝功能要求的最新标准可能要求对拔高进行调整，特殊情况下可能会改变坝址.Intheshapingupoftheprojectplantothispointthefollowingstepswillhavebeentakenaffectingdamsiteandsizeselection:在编制工程方案时以下步骤的选择会影响坝址和规模的选择:Theprojectfunctionswillhavebeendecided.Theprojectmaybesingle—purpose,ormayincludetwoormorefunctions。Thisisdeterminedbytheplanformulationstudiesinwhichvaluationsaremadetotestwhethertheinclusionofmorethanoneprojectfunctioniseconomicallyjustified.工程功能要确定。该工程可能是单一功能的，或者包括两个或更多的功能。这是由项目制定的研究所确定的，其中通过估算以检验加入多于一个的工程功能的经济合理性。Thelocationsofdamsandreservoirsiteswillhavebeendecided.Thisisdoneastheresultofinvestigationsofthesitealternatives，usuallyinthereconnaissancephasesofstudies，butsubjecttopossiblechangesandcorrectionsinlaterstages。Thesiteselectionswillhavebeenmadebyevaluatingthephysicalcharacteristicsofeachsite，makingcomparativeestimatesofcostsandpotentialaccomplishmentsforeachsitethatwouldbeadaptabletoaprojectplan.Considerationwillalsohavebeengiventowhetheronesite，orsetofsites,wouldhaveimportantandpossiblyoverridingadvantagesordisadvantagestothenext—bestavailablealternativefromenvironmentalimpactstandpoints.大坝位置和水库地址要确定。这是坝址比选研究的结果，通常在研究的勘察阶段，但是受到可能后续阶段可能的变化和更正所影响.坝址选择将通过评估各个坝址的物理特性而进行，对每个适用于工程方案的坝址进行成本和潜在效果的对比估算。还要从环境影响的观点考虑，是否某个坝址或是一系列坝址对次好的可用选项有重要和可能占优的优点或缺点。3）Thegrosscapacityofanystoragereservoirwillhavebeenselected.Thiswillhavebeendoneby（1）estimatingtheamountofsedimentaccumulationthatwilltakeplaceinthereservoiroveritseconomiclifeperiod；（2）estimatingtheamountofinactivestoragecapacityneededtomaintainapermanentminimumpoolforfisherypreservation,recreationalvalue,and/orpowerplantminimumhead;and（3）determiningthejustifiableamountsofactivestoragecapacityforreservoiroperationfortheoneormoreprojectfunction。Theamountsofactivestoragecapacitywillhavebeenselectedbytheplanformulationprocedureswherebycostsandaccomplishmentsareestimatedforarangeofreservoirsizes，benefitvaluesassignedtothedifferentkindsandvariableamountsofaccomplishments，andcomparativeeconomicevaluationsmadefortherangeofreservoirsizes.Again，considerationwillhavebeengiventowhethertherewouldbeaseriousadverseenvironmentalimpactifwaterwasimpoundedhigherthananycriticalelevation。3）任意水库的总库容要确定。这将通过以下完成：（1）计算水库经济寿命中的泥沙淤积量；（2）估算需要维持为渔业保护、旅游价值和/或最小发电水头的死库容容量；以及（3）确定为满足一个或多个项目功能时水库运营有效库容的合理容量。有效库容量将会通过方案制定过程选择，其中会估算一些列的水库规模的成本和成果，将收益值分配给不同种类和不同数量的成果,并对水库规模大小进行经济评估比选。此外，还要考虑如果水位被蓄积超过任意高度是否会有严重的不良环境影响。Thefinaladoptionofdamsitesandsizesoccursafteraprojecthasbeenauthorizedandfundedforconstruction。Someadjustmentsmaybemadetoeithersitesorsizesprovisionallyselectedbythefeasibilityinvestigation。Theadjustmentsmaybewarrantedbyimprovementsindatacollectedformakingfinaldesigns,orbyanychangesinprojectscopeasrequiredbyfinancialandrepaymentconsiderationsandlimitations.工程被批准并投资建设后，坝址和规模被最终采纳。可行性研究暂时选定的坝址或规模可能会做出一些调整。这些调整可能通过用于最终设计所收集的数据，或通过由财务或还款考虑和限制所要求的工程范围变化来支撑。3。InvestigationofConstructionMaterials3。建筑材料的调查Investigationsofconstructionmaterialsareusuallyconcernedwithoneoftwoquestions:isthereasufficientquantityofaspecifiedconstructionmaterialavailablewithinareasonablehauldistance，orwhatconstructionmaterialsareavailableinthearea.Theproperselectionofthetypeofdamtobebuiltatasitemustincludeacarefulevaluationoftheconstructionmaterialsdeterminesthetypeofdamthatcaneconomicallybeconsideredatagivensite.建筑材料的调查通常关心一两个问题：合理运距范围内是否有足量的特定种类的建筑材料？或该地区能够获得何种建筑材料？某个坝址处要建造坝型的选择必须有对决定坝型的建筑材料仔细的评估，这必须从经济方面考虑一个给定的坝址.Anefficientinvestigationcanberealizedonlythroughproperplanningoftheoffice,field,andlaboratorywork.Generally，theinvestigationcontainsthreephases：thepreliminaryphase,thesecondaryphaseandthefinalexploration。Itnormallyfollowsa“learn——as-you——go”procedureandbecomesmoredetailedastheworkprogressesandastheprojectmovesfromthepreliminarystagestotheconstructionstage。一种有效的调查只能通过办公室、现场和实验室工作的适当规划来实现。通常，这种调查包括三个阶段：初步阶段、第二阶段以及最终勘探。这通常遵循“边走边学”过程，并随着工作开展和工程从初步阶段向建设阶段推进而变得更加细致。3。1ThePreliminaryPhase3。1初步阶段Beforebeginningthefieldinvestigation，athoroughsearchshouldbemadeforavailableinformationrelatingtothestreamandtotheareaunderconsiderationincludingavarietyofmaps,airphotos,andreports。Thepublishedgeologicmapsofanareaaremostusefulinlocatingpossiblesourcesofconstructionmaterials.Potentialsourcesofconstructionmaterialsmaythusbeidentifiedandlocatedandfurtherstudiesplanned。Therearemanytypesofgeologicreportsthatmayprovidesomeusefulinformationtotheconstructionmaterialsinvestigator。Reportsonthegeneralgeologyoftheareausuallycontainadescriptionofthevariousconstructionmaterialsfoundthere。Butevenreportsonthegroundwatergeology,petroleumgeology,andothergeologicdataseeminglyunrelatedtoconstructionmaterialsmayprovidemuchusefuldata.在开始现场调查之前，应该对与考虑范围中的河流和区域有关的可得的信息进行全面收集，包括各种地图、航空图片以及报告。已公布的某地区的地质图对定位可能的建筑材料来源最有用.由此可能确定并定位潜在的建筑材料来源,并进行进一步的研究。很多类型的地质报告可能为建筑材料调查者提供一些有用的信息.某地区的一般地质报告通常包括在此发现的各种建筑材料的描述。甚至关于地下水地址、石油地质以及其它看似与建筑材料无关的地址数据的报告可能会提供很有用的数据.Oneofthemostvaluablesourcesofinformationistheactualproductionrecordsofconstructionmaterials。Theyareusuallyavailablethroughgovernmentalgeologicagencies。Theserecordsgenerallyincludethetotalannualproductionofthevariousconstructionmaterialsproducedintheareaandsomedescriptionofthevarioussources.最重要的信息来源之一是建筑材料实际生产记录。这些通常可以通过政府地质机构获得。这些记录通常包括该地区的各种建筑材料的年总产量和各种来源的说明。Topographicmapsaretotheinvestigation。Locationsandelevationsofexploratoryholes,outcrops，anderosionalcharacteristicscanbeplacedonthemaps.Andthelandformsportrayedbythecontoursindicatetosomedegreethetypeofsoilandsubsurfacegeologicconditions。地形图要进行调查.勘探孔、出露的位置和高程及风化特征可以在地图上标识出来。由等高线描绘的地形在某种程度上表明了土壤类型和表层下的地质条件。Theagriculturalsoilsurveymapsandreportsaresurficialandintendedforagriculturalinterests.Thesemapsandreportsareofvaluetotheengineerbecausesuchitemsassoilprofiledescriptions,groundsurfaceconditions，naturalvegetation，drainage,meteorologicaldata,flooddanger，andsimilardataareincluded。农业土壤调查地图和报告（范围）为地表，并为农业效益而制定.这些地图和报告对工程师有价值，因为这些条目，如土壤剖面描述，地面条件，自然植被，排水，气象数据，洪水的危险,以及类似的数据都包括在内.Aerialphotographymayrevealmanymaterialsourcesthatmayeasilybeoverlookedbyengineerswhodependsolelyonvisualgroundinvestigations.Fieldsurveysaretimeconsumingandexpensive.Oftenpossiblesourcesareinaccessibletotheinvestigatorduetolackofroadsordensevegetation.Fromthegrounditissometimesdifficultandoftenimpossibletorecognizelandformsinwhichmaterialsoccurduetosightlimitations。Aerialphotographictechniquesmakeinaccessibleareasaccessibletostudy.航空摄影可能显示出很多材料来源，这些来源能够被仅仅依靠目视地质调查的工程师轻松地俯瞰.实地调查耗时且昂贵。调查者经常因为道路不通或植被繁密而无法接近可能的（材料）来源。由于视线限制，从地面上有时很难且经常不可能识别出露材料的地形.航空摄影技术使得无法接近的地区变得可以研究。TheSecondaryPhase3.2第二阶段Afterthepreliminaryphaseoftheexplorationforconstructionmaterialsiscompleted，andtheevaluationispresentedinareport，newrequirementsfortheconstructionmaterialsareestablished.Thesenewrequirementsareguidesforthesecondaryphaseoftheconstructionmaterialsinvestigation。Theobjectiveofthisphaseofthematerialsinvestigationistolocatesuitablematerialstomeettheprobablerequirementsforthetypesofdamsbeingconsideredforfinalplanning.建筑材料勘探初步阶段完成后，且报告中展示出评估值，建筑材料新的需求就确立了。这些新的需求即为建筑材料调研第二阶段的指导.材料调查本阶段的目的是定位合适的材料以满足最终方案考虑大坝类型可能的需求。Thisstageincludespreliminarydrilling,sampling,andtestingofthemostpromisingsourcesinordertoestablishthatadequatequantitiesofsuitablematerialareavailable.Amorecompleteandthoroughinvestigationofexistinggeologicdata，existingquarriesandborrowareas,theirtestresults,performancerecordsandproductiondataisrequiredatthistime.Anadditionalreconnaissanceoftheareashouldalsobecompletedatthisstageoftheinvestigation.这个阶段包括初步钻孔、取样以及测试最有希望的样品，以确认足够量可得而合适的材料。这个时候需要一个对已有地质资料、现有采石场、取土区、其检测结果、性能记录和生产数据更加全面彻底地调查。这个调查阶段内也要完成补充勘察。Atthisstageofinvestigation，fieldstudies，includinggeologicmappingorcheckingofexistinggeologicmaps,shouldbecompletedforthemorepromisingareas。Limitedsamplingofselectedareasandpreliminarytestingwillprovidemorereliabledataonthearea.Newestimatesofthevolumeofmaterialsavailableintheareashouldbebasedontheadditionaldatacollectedsincetheinitialreconnaissance。在本调查阶段，应该完成对更有希望地区的实地研究，包括地质填图或对已有地质图的核对。所选地区有限的取样及初步测试将提供该地区更可信的数据.该地区内可得材料体积的最新估计应该基于自初始勘察起所收集的补充数据。Areviewwithplanners,designers,estimators，andconstructionspecialists，isappropriateatthistime.Thesereviewsbringoutquestions,newapproaches,andsuggestionsforthefinalexplorationoftheconstructionmaterials。Frequently,thisreviewprovidesthebasisfornarrowingthescopeofthestudyandpermitstheinvestigatortoconcentratehiseffortsonthemoreprobabletypesofmaterialstobeusedfortheproject.此时规划师、设计师、估算师和建筑专家的审查是合适的。这些审查提出对建筑材料最终开采的问题、新方法和建议。一般来说,这种审查能够提供缩小研究范围的基础，允许调查者集中精力于项目应用更加合适类型的材料.3。3FinalExploration3.3最终勘探Theobjectiveofthefinalexplorationprogramistoconfirmthelocationofadequatequantitiesofsuitablematerialsforanevaluationofthespecificsourcesofconstructionmaterials。最终勘探方案的目标是证实足够数量的合适材料的位置,以便对建筑材料的具体来源进行评价。Largediameterdrillingisprobablythemostefficientmethodofexploringforunconsolidatedconstructionmaterial。Trenchingandtestpitsexcavatedbybackhoearealsoveryefficientmethodsofexploringunconsolidateddeposits。Allofthesemethodspermitaccurate，detailedlogging。Loggingoftheseexploratoryholesshouldbeaccomplishedbyacapablespecialist.Theyshouldrecordtheusualgeologicandsoilsdescriptions，andtheirobservationsareofgreatimportanceduringdrillingandsampling；forexample，notesanorganicmaterial,moisturecontent，waterlevels，degreeofcementationanduniformityofthematerials。Geophysicalmethodssuchasseismicandelectricalresistivityarenotusuallyneededinexploringthesematerialsasthedrillingiseconomicalandcompletedsoquickly。However,inmanyareasthegeophysicalmethodsmaybeusedeffectivelytoprovidesomedataontheborrowareas，suchaswatertable，anddepthtoconsolidatedrock，etc.大孔径钻孔可能是勘探松散建筑材料最有效的方法。由反铲挖土机挖掘的开槽和测试井也是勘探松散材料存储的非常有效的方法。所有的这些方法都要有准确、详细的记录。这些勘探孔的记录应该由一个有能力的专家来完成。他们应该记录常规的地质和土壤描述，在钻孔和取样时它们的观察相当重要；比如,指出一个有机材料、含水量、水位，以及材料的胶结和均匀度.由于钻孔是经济的且完成较快，因此通常不需要诸如地震勘探和电法勘探的物探方法来探测这些材料.然而,在一些地区物探方法可能有效地用于在为取料区提供数据，如水位以及距离固结岩石的深度，等等。4。GeologicandFoundationInvestigations4。地质和基础调查In1963alandslideatVaiontReservoir，Italy,generatedanimmensewaterwavewhichovertoppedtheworld'shighestconcretearchdamthen.Thiswaveleftitsmarks238mabovereservoirlevel.Remarkably,thedamwithstoodtheoverpressurestowhichitwassubjected.However，thewavecontinueddownstreamintothetownofLongarroneleavingabout2500fatalitiesinitswake。WithinoneminuteVaiontReservoirwaschokedwithmorethan139000000m3ofearthandrockwhichextendedfromthetoeofthedamupstreamforadistanceofabout1.61km.1963年意大利的瓦伊昂水库发生了滑坡，产生的巨浪翻过了当时世界上最高的混凝土拱坝。这次巨浪在高出水库238米的地方留下了痕迹。值得一提的是,大坝顶住了它承受的过大水压。然而，巨浪涌向下游进入兰加隆镇并造成了2500人死亡。在不到一分钟的时间内，瓦伊昂水库就被塞入了超过139000000立方米的土石,它们在坝趾上游大约1.61千米的距离扩展开来。Thisisatypicalexampleofthosemomentousfailurescausedbylandslidesatreservoirshore。Asamatteroffact,almostalltherecentfailuresareconcernedwithfoundationmovementsorgeologicalslips。Thesedemonstratetheimportanceofthegeologicandfoundationinvestigations。这是在水库岸边由山体滑坡造成的重大失事的一个典型案例。事实上,几乎所有近来的失事都与基础位移或地质滑坡有关。这些则证明了地质和基础调查的重要性。Todaytheplanning,design，construction,andoperationofdamsfrequentlyinvolvestheservicesofgeophysicists,seismologists,earthquakeengineers,andlegalexpertsinadditiontogeologistsandengineersexperiencedinsoilsandrockmechanics。Inpractice,everydamrequiresgeologicandfoundationinvestigationtodetectandevaluateconditionsthatwillaffectitsdesign，construction，andoperations。Thepurposeofgeologicandfoundationinvestigationistoprovidethedatanecessarytoproperlyevaluateafoundation。Aproperlysequencedandorganizedfoundationinvestigationforadamwillprovideallthedatanecessarytoevaluateandanalyzethefoundationatanystageofthesitedevelopment如今大坝的规划、设计、施工和运行除了有丰富岩土力学经验的地质学家和工程师，还经常涉及地球物理学家、地震学家、地震工程师和法律专家的参与服务。在实践中,要求对每一个坝都进行地质和基础调查，以检测和评估那些将影响其设计、建造和运行的条件.地质和基础调查的目的就是为正确地评估基础提供必要的数据.一个正确地有序且有组织的大坝基础调查会对现场开发任何阶段的基础评估和分析提供必要的数据。Itistheresponsibilityoftheengineeringgeologisttoidentifygeologicconditionsthatcouldendangerlifeorpropertyifadamisconstructed.Themostsignificantgeologichazardsincludelandslides,earthquakes，landsubsidence,leakagethroughpointsorerodibleformationsandthepresenceincriticallocationsofliquefiablesediments.Thecasehistoriesofdamandreservoirfailuresincludereviewsofcatastrophesattributabletoeachofthesehazards。工程地质学家有责任确认肯能会在大坝建成后危及其寿命或特性的地质条件。最显著的地质灾害包括滑坡、地震、地陷、通过点或侵蚀的岩层的泄漏，以及关键位置处存在可液化沉积物。大坝和水库失事的案例历史包括归咎于所有这些灾害的灾难的评价。Thegeologicandfoundationinvestigationgenerallyincludesthreemainparts,i。e。thepreliminaryinvestigation,thesubsurfaceexplorationandthefoundationevaluation。Asufficientpreliminaryinvestigationshouldincludeacanvassoftheliteratureforreports,mapsandphotos，areconnaissanceoftheprojectareatodetectgeologicconditionswhichcouldaffectprojectfeasibility,thegeologicmappingofthedamandreservoirsite，aswellasthelocationofsourcesofconstructionmaterials.Thesubsurfaceexplorationmayincludegeophysicalsurveys,drilling，andexploratorypitsoradits。Inthefoundationevaluation,detailedsoilsandrockmechanicsinvestigationsshouldbecompleted.Earthquake-relatedhazardsshouldbeidentifiedearlyintheinvestigation.Theyareevaluatedinincreasingdetailinthesubsequentstagesofdamdesign.地质和基础调查一般包括三个主要部分，即初步调查、地下勘探和基础评估。一个足够的初步调查应该包括一个详细调查，其中有报告文献、地图、图片、项目地区检验可能影响项目可行性的地质条件的勘探、坝址和库址的地质填图以及建筑材料来源的位置.在基础评估中,应该完成详细的岩土力学调查。与地震相关的灾害应该在调查中及早确认.它们会在大坝设计的后续阶段被更加详细地评估。Theinitialinvestigationincludesapreliminaryselectionofthesiteandtypeofdam.Allavailablegeologicandtopographicmaps，photographsofthesitearea,anddatafromfieldexaminationsofnaturaloutcrops,roadcuts,andothersurfaceconditionsshouldbeutilizedintheselectionofthesiteandpreliminaryevaluationofthefoundation.初步调查包括对大坝坝址和类型的初步选择。所有可用的地质和地形图、坝址图片和自然岩层、道路断面及其他表层情况的现场检验数据都应用在坝址的选择和基础的初步评估中。Thegeologichistoryofasiteshouldbethoroughlystudied,particularlywherethegeologyiscomplex。Astudyofthehistorymayassistinrecognizingandadequatelyinvestigatinghiddenbutpotentiallydangerousfoundationconditions。坝址处的地质历史应该全面研究,特别是地质情况复杂的地方。对历史的研究可能有助于认知和充分调查隐藏但是潜在的危险基础条件.Thecollection，study,andevaluationoffoundationdataisacontinuingprogramfromthetimeofthepreliminaryinvestigationtothecompletionofconstruction.Preliminaryinvestigationprovidesthedatarequiredfortheselectionofthesiteandthetypeofdam.Thedatacollectioncontinuesonamoredetailedbasisthroughthedesignphase。Dataarealsocollectedcontinuouslyduringconstructionasthefoundationisexposed,tocorrelatewithpreviouslyobtainedinformationandtoevaluatethepossibleneedfordesignchanges。对基础数据的收集、研究和评价是从初步调查到建设完成的持续性方案.初步调查提供坝址和坝型选择所需的数据。设计阶段数据收集将会建立在更加详细的基础上.基础开挖后的建筑过程中也要不断地收集数据，以与先前获得的信息向联系并评估设计变更的可能需求Basicdatathatshouldbeobtainedduringthepreliminaryinvestigations，withrefinementscontinuinguntiltheconstructioniscomplete，are:（1）dip，strike,thickness,composition,andextentoffaultsandshears；（2）depthofoverburden;（3）depthofweathering；（4）Jointorientationandcontinuity;（5）lithologythroughoutthefoundation.初步调查过程中应该获取并在直到建设完成过程中不断改进的基础数据包括:（1）断层和剪切带的倾角、走向、厚度、组成及范围；（2）覆盖层厚度；（3）风化层厚度；（4）节理的方向和连续性;（5）整个基础的岩性。Theadditionaldrillholesareincorporatedintoadrillingprogramwhichtakesadvantageofknowledgeofspecialconditionsrevealedduringthepreliminaryinvestigations。Thedrillholesbecomemorespecificallyorientedandincreasedinnumbertobetterdefin