《中国的传统与转型》第二章lnk课件

China:

TraditionandTransformationLecturer:LiewJien中国的传统与转型

SWUFE2.EarlyChina:TheBirthOfaCivilization2.1ThearchaeologicalRecordAgricultureseemstohavestartedinNorthChinaintheregionofthegreatbendoftheYellowRiver,inafringeareabetweenwoodedhighlandsonthewestandswampylowlandsontheeast,wherehunter-fisherfolkcoulddomesticateanimalsandbegintocultivateplantsforfood.ItthenspreadalongthemiddleandlowercourseoftheYellowRiverandoutovertheNorthChinaPlain,which,despiteseverewinters,waswellsuitedtoagricultureinprimitivetimes.Infact,thiscenterofearlyChinesecivilizationresembledinsomewaysthehomesofotherancientcivilizations—thefloodplainsoftheNileinEgypt,theTigrisandEuphratesinMesopotamia,andtheIndusinmodernPakistan.Ineachcase,rainfallwastoolighttoproduceforeststhathadtoberemovedbeforetillingcouldbegin,andthegreatriver,ifadequatelycontrolled,providedamplewaterandreplenishedthesoil’sfertilitywithperiodicfloods.Recentfinds,ontheotherhand,haveshownthatpotterygoesbackasfarinEastAsiaasanywhereintheworld-----perhapssome10,000years----andthatbronzemayhavebeenproducedevenealierinnorthernThailandthaninthemiddleEast.Rice,thechiefcerealofEastAsiatoday,isofSoutheastAsianorigin,anditscultivationwaswellestablishedintheYangtzeValleybyprehistorictines.TheprehistoricChinesealsoproducedsilk,whichspreadtotheWestverymuchlater.Someimportantdomesticanimalswereofdifferentderivation—pigs.chickens,anddogsforfoodandthewaterbuffaloforricecultivation.ThebasicagriculturetoolofEastAsiahasalwaysbeenthehoe,incontrasttotheplowoftheWest.ThemostcharacteristicPaleolithicremainsarestonechoppers;intherestofthe“oldworld”theyarechippedstoneaxes.NeolithicremainsinEastAsiaaretypifiedbyhalfmoon-shapedstoneknivesandgreypotterywithmatandcordmarkings,bothquitedifferentfromWesternEurasianartifacts.Thereis,thus,goodreasontoassumethatinEastAsiaagricultureandearlycivilizationdevelopedquiteindependentlyofWesternEurasia.TheculturethatarosearoundthebendoftheYellowRiverinnorthwestChinawasprobablybasedonthisEastAsianculturebutseemstohavealsoreceivedenrichmentfromregionstotheWest.However,thereisnoevidencethattheseinfluenceswerebroughtbyinvadersormigrants,andtheNeolithicpeoplesofNorthChinaandpossiblytheirPaleolithicpredecessorsappeartohavebeenthedirectancestorsofthemodernChinese.EvenatthisearlytimethecultureofNorthChinashoweddistinctiveEastAsianfeatures.ThePaintedPotteryculture,whichisalsoknownasYang-shaofromatypesiteinnorthwestHonan,isfoundthroughoutNorthChina,exceptforShantungprovinceintheextremeeast,anditlingeredonlongestinKansuprovinceinthenorthwest.ItsmostfamoussiteisthepartlyexcavatedvillageatPan-ponearSian(theancientChang-an),whichdatesfromthefifthmillenniumB.C.Thecultureistypifiedbylargebulbouspots,paintedinreadandblack,usuallywithboldgeometricdesigns.WhileitbearssomeresemblancetothepaintedpotteryofWestAsia,onecannotassumethatitwasmerelyacultureborrowingfromtheWest,becausethereisnocleararchaeologicaltrailbywhichitcouldhavecome.TheBlackPotteryculture,alsocalledLung-shanfromtypesitesinShantung,coveredthesameareaasthePainted,exceptfortheextremenorthwest,andalsoextendedintoShantungandthemiddleandthelowerYangtzevalleys.Itistypifiedbyaverythin,shiny,blackpottery.ThiscultureshowedthatsincethetimeofthePaintedPotterynewinfluencesformWestAsia,suchasdomesticatedsheepandhorsesandthepotter’swheel,hadreachedNorthChina.Italsoshowedstrongculturalcontinuitywiththefollowingbronzeage.Forexample,itsharedthesamehollow-leggedtripods,acommonsystemofdivination,andtownwallsofpoundedearth,muchlikethosethatstillmaybefoundinNorthChinatoday.ThethirdbronzestageisbestrepresentedbyasitenearAn-yanginthepartofHonannorthoftheYellowRiver.ItwasdiscoveredbyChinesescholarswhoin1899becauseintriguedbywhatappearedtobeancientwritingscratchedontothe“dragonbones”thatPekingapothecaryshopsweregrindingupformedicine.TheytracedthesebonestotheirsourcenearAn-yangandonfurtherstudydiscoveredthattheyboretheearliestknownformofChinesewritingandcorroboratedmuchoftheearlyhistoricaltradition.TheinscriptionscontainedthenamesofvirtuallyallofthetraditionalrulersofanancientdynastyknownastheShangandawealthofdetailaboutthelatterhalfofthedynasty,whenthecapitalwassaidtohavebeenatAn-yang(roughlyfromabout1400to1050B.C).Clearlythearchaeologicalrecordandhistoricaltraditionsflowedtogetheratthispoint.Scholars,whoatthetimelookedcompleteskepticismontheShangDynasty,hadtoreversecourseandacceptitsexistenceasverifiedhistory.2.2EarlyChineseTraditionsTheoldestremainingChinesebooks,datingfromthefirsthalfofthefirstmillenniumbeforeChrist,donottellusmushaboutpreviousages.Inthenextfewcenturies,however,theChinesewroteagreatdealaboutthebeginningsoftheircivilizationanditsearlyhistory.Infact,asoneapproachesthetimeofChrist,theChinesewritershavemoreandmoretotellaboutearlierandearlierperiod.Theirworks,ofcourse,tellusmoreaboutthebeliefsandcustomsoftheperiodinwhichtheywerewrittenthanofthehistoryofearlierages.Still,theycontainmuchmaterialonearliermythologyandtraditionsandundoubtedlysomesolidbitsofhistory.Religiousideascenteredontheclananditsdeities,oftenidentifiedasancestors.AncestorworshiphasremainedeversinceacharacteristicofChinesecivilization.Aswasnaturalinanagriculturalsociety,therewasalsostrongemphasisonheavenasacontrollingfactorinagriculture,onthefertilityofthesoil,ongraingods,andoncosmologicalandcalendricallore.Authoritywasstronglyreligious,andtherulerwasinasensethechiefpriestandalsocalendarmaker.TheChineseearlydevelopedastrongfeelingofhistoryandtheideaofpoliticalunity.Unawareofthegreatculturestothewest,theyconsideredChinatheuniquelandofcivilization,surroundedonallsidesbythe‘fourbarbarians.’TheythereforecalleditChung-kuo,literallythe“CentralCountry”butcommonlytranslatedthe“MiddleKingdom”.Chung-kuoisstilltheChinesenamefortheirland.Thetermt’ien-hsia,meaning“allunderheaven”,meanttheworldbutcametobeusedfortheChineseEmpire.InformationandspeculationaboutearlierageswasorganizedintoastricthistoricalsequenceofeventsattributedtorulersofapoliticallyandculturallyunifiedChinathatconstitutedthewholeofcivilization.2.2.1TheCultureHeroesThereareseveralversionsofthisearlypseudo-history.Theusualsequenceisofthreeearlyrulers(huang)orpossiblyfraternalgroupsofrulers,followedbyfiveemperors(ti),followedbythreedynasties,whichtakeuswellintohistoricaltimes.Thethreerulersandfiveemperorsareoftencalled“cultureheroes,”becausetothemandtolesserfigureslikethemareattributedtheearlyachievementsofcivilization,suchasthediscoveryoffire,theoriginationoffishing,hunting,andagriculture,thedevisingofthecalendar,thedevelopmentofmedicine,andtheinventionofwriting.Thewifeofthefirstofthefiveemperorsiscreditedwiththedevelopmentofsericulture,forsilkproductionistypicallytheworkofwomen.2.2.2TheEarlyDynastiesWithYualsocommencesasomewhatmorecredibleaspectofthetradition.HestartedadynastycalledtheHsia,whichhasbeenassignedthedates2205—1766B.C.(or1994—1523B.C.accordingtoanothersource).TheHsiarulersarecreditedwithreignsofreasonablelength,incontrasttotheMethuselah-likespansofthecultureheroes.ThelastHsiaemperorwassodepravedthatpeoplerevoltedundertheleadershipofamanwhofoundedanewdynasty,

namedShang.TheShang,whichistraditionallygiventhedatesof1766---1122B.C,or1523—1027B.C.hasbeenprovenbyarchaeologytobefullyhistorical,fortheAn-yangfindsindubitablycorrespondtothesecondhalfofthedynastyhalfofthedynastyandtheCheng-choufindspresumablytoitsearliercenturies.ThisraisesthequestionofwhatactualfactsmayliebehindthetraditionoftheHsiadynasty.Mightitnotcorrespondtotheearliestbronzeage,orperhapstheBlackPotteryculturewhichprecededit?ThelastoftheShangemperorswassaidtobeadebauchedtyrannicalruler—anallegationwhichtheboneinscriptionsfromAn-yangtendtosubstantiate.OneofthosewhosufferedmostathishandswasasubjectknowntohistoryasKingWen(WenWang)oftheprincipalityofChou.Hissonandsuccessor,KingWu(WuWang)eventuallyrevolted,accordingtothetraditionineither1122or1027B.C.,andfoundedthethirddynasty,whichhecalledChouafterthenameofhisprincipality.Hisbrother,theDukeofChou(ChouKung),becametheconsolidatorofthedynasty,asthewiseandsaintlycouncilorofKingWu’syoungsonandheir.2.3TheChineseWritingSystemTheoutstandingfeatureofthelateShangfindsatAn-yangisthewritingtheycontain;notonlyisitunmistakablytheChineselanguagebutitisalsoanearlyformoftheChinesewritingsystemthatstilldominatesEastAsiancivilization.Somesymbolarerecognizableeventotheuntutoredeyeasidenticalwithcharactersappearinginnewspaperstoday.ItismuchasiftheArabic-speakinginhabitantsofEgyptorIraqwereabletorecognizeinhieroglyphicsorcuneiformthesamelanguagetheynowuseandcouldpointoutoccasionalwordsthatanyschoolboycouldread.TheChinesehavealwaysfeltacompleteculturalandracialidentitywiththeancientinhabitantsoftheirland,andhereisstrikingproofthattheyarerightindoingso.TheyhavegoodreasontofeelagreatersenseofdirectcontinuityfromtheShangthanwesternersfeelfromtheearlyEgyptiansandMesopotamians,oreventheancientGreeksandRomans.2.3.1ChineseCharacter

ThemonosyllabicanduninflectednatureoftheChineselanguagehelpsaccountfortheretentionbytheChineseofawritingsystemwhich,likethatofancientEgypt,originatedfrompictographsbut,unlikehieroglyphics,alwaysremainedtruetothebasicprinciplethateachmonosyllabicwordshouldhaveitsuniquesymbol,orcharacter.InflectionswouldlongagohaveforcedtheChinesetoamoreflexiblephoneticsystemofwriting.TheChinesewritingsystemencounteredintheAn-yangfindshadalreadyundergonealongdevelopmentandhadprogressedfarbeyondsimplepictographs.Antecedentsforthiswriting,infact,seemtoexistinsitesofthefifthmilleniumB.C.Thewritingusuallyranfromtoptobottom,asremainedtheruleuntilrecentyears.ThemorethantwothousandcharactersfoundintheShangremainslookforthemostpartquitedifferentfrommodernChinesecharacters,butalmostallhavebeenclearlyidentifiedwithlaterforms,andalltheprinciplestobefoundintheeightorninethousandcharacterscommonlyusedinmoderntimes(dictionarieslistuptofiftythousandcharactersandvariants)werepresentintheShangwriting.2.3.2AdvantageanddisadvantagesoftheWritingSystem

TheChinesewritingsystemhascertaindrawbackswhencomparedwiththesimplerphoneticsystemoftheWest.Itobviouslytakesagreatdealmoretimeandefforttomaster.Theindividualcharacterstendtoberathercomplex.Theaveragecharactermayrequiresometwelveorthirteenbrushstrokestowrite,andafewtakeasmanyastwenty-five.Atleasttwoorthreethousandcharactersmustbememorizedbeforeonecanreadevensimpletexts.TheemphasisonrotememoryworktolearnallthesecharactersmayhavehadalimitinginfluenceinChineseeducation,puttingapremiumonmemorizingability.Thecomplexityofsystemliteracymoredifferenttoachievethanitwasincultureswithsimplerwritingsystems,andthushelpedlimitupper-classlifetotherelativefewwhocouldfindthetimeforprotractedstudy.Thewritingsystemhasbecomeincreasedhandicapinmoderntimesastheneedforwidespreadliteracyhasincreased.EventhoughtheChineseinventedprinting.charactershavemadeprintingamuchmoredifficulttechniquethanintheWestandsofaralleffortstoconstructChinesetypewriterthatisanythinglessthanasmallprintingpressorelectronicbrainhaveprovedunsuccessful..Therecentsimplificationofsomeofthemorecommonlyusedcharacters,thoughhelpful,hasnotsolvedthebasicproblemsinherentinthewritingsystem.Ontheotherhand,theChinesewritingsystemhascertainmeritsthattheWesternsystemslack.Theverycomplexityofthecharactersandtheirgraphicqualitiesgivethemaestheticvaluesfarbeyondmerephoneticscripts.CalligraphyisagreatartinEastAsiaandtheancestorofallthegraphicarts,forthewritingbrushisalsothebrushofthepainter,Adistinguishedhandhasalwaysbeenconsideredthemarkofawelleducatedman.Thecharactersthemselvesalsohaveasortofvitalitylackinginphoneticscripts.Oncetheyhavebeenlearned,whocanforgetthatthecharacterfor“peace”isawomanunderaroofandthecharacterfor“bright”acombinationof“sun”and“moon”?Chinesecharactersseemtocarrywiththemrichersubstanceandsubtlerovertonesthantheoralwordstheyweredesignedtorepresent,thuslendingthemselvestoatersevividnessinbothproseandpoetrythatisquiteunattainableinourphonetically-boundwritingsystems.Oncemastered,theycanalsobereadmorerapidlythanaphoneticscript.Itiseasytoimbuethecharacterwithmagicqualities,astheancientChineseundoubtedlydid.Thewrittenwordalwaystookprecedenceoverthespoken.Chinesehistoryisfulloffamousdocuments----memorialstothethrone,essays,andpoems----butfewgreatspeeches.Everythingwritten,andparticularlythatwhichsurvivedfromantiquity,wasconsideredtobeofalmostsacredvalue.SuchattitudesmayhelpaccountforthehighstorethepeoplesofEastAsianhaveplacedonbooklearningandformaleducation.ItmayseemironicbutitisonaccidentthatliteracyratesinEastAsiatendtorunmuchhigherthaninotherareasofcomparableeconomiclevelbutsimplerwritingsystems.AnothergreatadvantageoftheChinesewritingsystemisthatiteasilysurmountsdifferencesofdialectorevenmorefundamentallinguisticbarriers.AllliterateChinese,eveniftheyspeakmutuallyunintelligible“dialects”,canreadthesamebooksandfeelthatclassicalwrittenChineseistheirownlanguage.Iftheyhadhadaphoneticsystemofwriting,theymighthavebrokenupintoseparatenationalgroups,asdidtheItalians,French,Spanish,andPortuguese.ThestatureofChinaaslargestnationalgroupingintheworldistobeexplainedatleastinpartbythewritingsystem.ThelargerunityofEastAsiancivilizationhasalsodependedonitingreatpart.AloveandvenerationforChinesecharactershasbeenastronglinkbetweenthevariouscountries.Untilacenturyago,mostbookswritteninKoreaandVietnamandmanyofthosewritteninJapanwereinclassicalChinese,notinthenationallanguages.EventodayeducatedChinese,Japanese,andKoreancanrecognizethousandsofwordswrittenincharactersinbooksfromtheothertwocountries,eveniftheyallpronouncethesewordsquitedifferently.IfChinahadhadaphoneticsystemofwriting,EastAsiawouldcertainlynothavebecomesodistinctaunitinworldcivilization.2.4ShangCultureNexttowriting,themostremarkablefindsatAn-yangandotherShangsitesarebronzes,consistinglargelyofweaponsorelaborateceremonialvessels,oftenofimposingsize.Thevesselsarecoveredwithrichdesignsinsharplyincisedlinesorhighrelief,suggestingclayorwoodenprototypes.Theirbeautyisenhancedbypatinationofvariedshadesofgreenproducedbythechemicalactionofthesoilinwhichtheylay.ThequalityofbronzecastinginthelateShangwasextremelyfineandhasneverbeensurpassedanywhereintheworld.ThedesignsappeartobeentirelyEastAsian.Therearebronzetripods,forexample,whichharkbacktothehollow-leggedtripodsoftheBlackPotteryculture.Somevesselswerecastintheshapeofanimals,suchastheelephant,whichstillinhabitedNorthChinainthisperiodwhentheclimatewassomewhatwarmerandwetterthanitistoday.Thechiefdesignelementonthebronzesisthet’ao-t’iehoranimalmask.Itisafrontalviewofananimalhead,suchasawaterbuffaloorram,portrayedwithangularlinesinahighlyconventionalmanner.SimilardesignsarefoundatAn-yangonboneartifactsandmarblesculptures.ThewholeShangapproachtotheproblemofdesignisquitedistinctfromanythingknownintheprehistoricorancientWest,whereanimalswerenormallyportayedinprofile.Thereare,however,parallelsinotherEastAsiancountries,intheSouthPacific,andamongtheIndiansofthePacificNorthwest.ThishasgivenrisetotheconceptofaPacificBasintypeofdesign,ofwhichtheShangofferstheearliestexample.Inscriptionsoccuronsomeearlybronzes,butmostShangwritinghasbeenfoundincisedonthe“dragonbones”.Thereareactuallytheundershellsoftortoises,thescapulaeorshoulderbladesofcattle,andotherflattishbones.Sincetheywereusedinamethodofdivination,alsopracticedintheBlackPotteryculture,theyareofftencalled“oraclebones”andthismethodofdivination,scapulimancy.Asmallgroovewascarvedononesideoftheboneandheatwasthenappliednearthisthinspot,producingcracksfromwhichthedivinersomehowderived"yes"or"no"answerstohisquestion.Aboutatenthofthe"oraclebones"haveinscribedonthemthequestionsasked,andafewalsohavetheanswerandsometimeseventheeventualoutcome.Thequestionscoversuchmattersassacrificestothedeities,theweather,coops,war,huntingexpeditions,aidorinjurybyanancestortohislivingdescendants,andtheluckofthenextten-dayperiod,whichalreadyhadbeenestablishedastheEastAsian"week".Wecanseehowsignificantanactivitydivinationwasfromthefactthatthechiefministersoftherulersallseemtohavebeendiviners.Sacrificeswerealsoextremelyimportant.Usuallyanimalswereused,butsometimesliquor,probablyasortofbeer,waspouredonthegroundinlibation.Sacrificesweremadetovariousnaturedeities,thecardinalpoints,andtoTiorShangTi(SupremeTi),whomayhavebeena"firstancestor"oftheShangpeople.2.4.1TheShangStateandSocietyTheShangeconomywasmainlyagricultural.TheShangalsohadsheepandcattlebutalreadyseemtohavehadthetraditionalChineseabhorrenceformilkanmilkproducts.Sincebronzewasrareandcostly,agriculturaltoolsweremadeofwoodorstone.Cowrieshellswereusedasasortofprimitivemoney.Theseshellsfromsouthernwatershavelefttheirmarkonthewritingsystem:manycharactershavingtodowithwealthandtradehavethe"shell"signific.Jadewashighlyprized,asithasbeenthroughoutChinesehistory.SuccessionamongtheShangrulerswasoftenfrombrothertobrother(thirteencases)ratherthanfromfathertoson(seventeencase).TwoofthesuccessivecapitalsoftheserulerswereundoubtedlythecitiesunearthednearCheng-chouandAn-yang.Howfarbeyondtheirwallstheyactuallyruledisnotknown.ShangculturalremainsarefoundscatteredoverawideareainNorthChinafromthegreatbendoftheYellowRivertocentralShantung;butmuchofthisareamayhavebeenruledbyvassalorevenrivalstates,andtheeffectiveareaofShangcontrolmayhavebeenfairlysmall.TheShangrulerswerefrequentlyatwarwithnearbyneighborsandmaraudingherdsmen.Ontheotherhand,thestatewasbigenoughtofieldarmiesofthreethousandtofivethousandmen,andtheremainsatCheng-ChouandAn-yangareimpressive.ThestyleofarchitecturewasessentiallythesameasthatofmodernChina,contrastingwiththestonearchitectureoftheancientWest.Theroofwascarriedbyrowsofwoodenpillars,andthewalls,atfirstmadeofpoundedearthbutinlatertimesusuallyofbrick,weremerelynonstructuralscreens.Thepillarsrestedonindividualfoundationstonessetonaplatformofpoundedearth.AsisstillthecustominNorthChina,buildingswerecarefullyorientedtofacesouth.Unlikethepalacebuildings,thehousesofthecommonpeopleappeartohavebeencrudepitdwellings,asinNeolithictimes.ThegapbetweenrulerandruledisfurtherillustratedbythegrandiosescaleoftheroyaltombsatAn-yang.Theseweregreatpits,asmuchasforty-threefeetdeepandcoveringuptofivethousandsquarefeet,subsequentlyfilledwithbeatenearth.Itwascustomarytoburywiththecorpsearticlesofuseandvalue,presumablyforthebenefitofthedeceasedinsomeafterlife.Inthetombshavebeenfoundwarchariots,whichshowthatShangwaspartofthewarchariotculturethatinthemiddleofthesecondmillenniumB.C.sweptoverthecivilizedworldallthewayfromGreecetoChina.Manybodiesofbotharistocratsandhumblefollowerswerealsoburiedwithrulers,andtherewereotherformsofhumansacrifice,usuallyinmultiplesoftenandsometimeshundredsatatime.SomehistorianshaveconcludedthattheShangwasaslavesociety.Inanycase,thecleavagebetweenrulersandruledwasverygreat.TheShangsovereigns,whomayhavestartedaslittlemorethanchiefshamansmediatingbetweenthepeopleandtheirancestorsanddeities,developedduringtheroughlyfivecenturiesofShangascendancyintorulersofverygreatauthority.ThusthetendencyoftheChinesetoestablishandacceptaunified,authoritarianstategoesbacktoveryearlytimes.2.4.2OriginsoftheAuthoritarianpattern

TheearlyChinesepatternofpoliticalabsolutismhasgivenrisetosomeinterestingtheories.Avirtualmonopolyofbronzemetallurgy,bronzeweapons,andchariotsprobablygavetherulingclassgreatpowerovertheothermembersofthestateinShangtimes.Certainbroaderfactorsmayalsohavebeenoperative.Aswehaveseen,thefamilypatternofChinalendsitselftoauthoritarianism.ThedevelopmentofanabsolutecentralizedstatemayalsohavebeenfosteredbytheconstantneedtheChinesefeltforunifieddefenseagainsttheirnomadicneighbors,asisillustratedbytheGreatWall.SomescholarshaveseentheneedforhugecooperativeefforttokeeptheYellowRiverwithinboundsandprovidefornecessarydrainageandirrigationasanothersourcefortheauthoritarianstateinChina.Afewmenhadtodirecttheworkofagreatmanyinordertocompletetheseundertakings.Whereversuchwater-controleffortswerenecessaryonalargescale,itisargued,adespoticor"Oriental"typeofsocietydeveloped,withabsolutistmonarchssupportedbyabureaucraticofficialclassrulingoverdensepeasantpopulations,aswasthesituationinancientEgyptandMesopotamia.ThemyththatYu，thefounderoftheHsiadynasty,controlledthefloodwatersofChinafitsthistheorywell,andgreatcoordinatedeffortsatwatercontroldidtakeplaceyearsleadinguptofoundingofthefirstgreatChineseEmpire.ButthiswasaboutamillenniumaftertheShang,whothemselvesdependedonrainfallratherthanirrigationforagriculture.Thewater-controltheorythuscannotexplainthecentralizedabsolutismoftheShangstate,althoughitmayhelpexplainthecontinuanceandstrengtheningofthispatterninlatertimes.2.5TheEarlyChou2.5.1TheChouStateTheChoupeople,whoconqueredtheShangaround1050B.C.,livedintheWeiValleywestofthegreatbendoftheYellowRiver.TheircapitalwasnearthemoderncityofSian.WhiletheChouwerethemselvesanagriculturalpeople,theylivedclosetothesheep-herdingbarbariansoftheNorthwestandwereculturallyquitedistinctfromtheShang.TheoldNeolithicBlackPotterycultureseemstohavepersistedintheWeiValleyalmosttothetimeoftheconquest.TheChouapparentlyhadbecomevassalsoftheShang,protectingthewesternmarchesoftherealm,butunderthreesuccessiveleaders,KingWen,KingWu,andthelatter'sbrother,theDukeofChou,theydestroyedtheShangandoverranallofNorthChina.Infact,thewidespreadofearlyChouremainssuggeststhattheyconqueredamuchlargerareathantheShanghadeverdominated,stretchingfromtheWeiValleytotheeasternextremityofShantungandfromsouthernManchuriatothemiddleandlowerYangtzeValley.Theprimitivecommunicationsoftimebychariotorwagonmadeitimpossibletoadministerdirectlysolargeanarea.TheDuckofChouestablishedasecondarycapitalatthemodernLoyangintheoldheartlandoftheShang,butotherwisetheChourulersdelegatedauthoritytoalargenumberofvassals.Thesewereforthemostparttheirdescendantsorrelatives,butincludedunrelatedhenchmenandlocalaristocratswhohadacknowledgedChousuzerainty.Intimethesevassalsbecamegradedinastricthierarchyofprestigewithtitlesusuallytranslatedduke,marquis,count,viscount,andbaron.Eachprincipalitywasinessenceasmallcity-state,consistingofawalledtownanditssurroundingcountryside.Howmanysuchstatestherewereisnotknown.Intheeighthcentury,however,aftermanyhadbeenabsorbedbyothersbutnewperipheraloneshadalsobeenadded,thenumberseemstohavebeenabouttwohundred.Eachlord,whilesupposedlyrecognizingChousuzerainty,enjoyedautonomywithinhisrealm.Thesystemhasoftenbeencalled"feudal",andtheEastAsiansusethesametermforitasformedievalWesternandJapanesefeudalism.Itseemsdubious,however,that"feudalism"istherigh