广东药学院教师课堂教学讲稿-系统解剖学(英文)

人体解剖学双语教学班讲稿（曾明辉编写）Thelectureforbilingualteachingclassesofhumananatomy(writtenbyzengminghui)第2页共181页第5页共181页第1页共181页广东药学院教师课堂教学讲稿课程系统解剖学专业临床医学、预防医学教师曾明辉班级双语班

IntroductionofHumanAnatomy人体解剖学绪论1.Whatishumananatomy?Humananatomy(人体解剖学)isthesubjectwhichstudiestheshape,structureandspatialinterrelationsoforgansofnormalhumanbody.Humananatomyisanimportantbasiccourseofmedicine.2.Classificationofhumananatomy:Humananatomyisgenerallyclassifiedintogrossanatomy(大体解剖学),microscopicanatomy(显微解剖学,histology),developmentalanatomy(成长解剖学),radiographicanatomy(放射解剖学)andclinicalanatomy(临床解剖学)etc.Grossanatomyissubdividedinto①systematicanatomy(系统解剖学)and②regionalanatomy(局部解剖学).Systematicanatomytakesthesystemsofhumanbody(suchaslocomotorsystem,alimentarysystemetc.)asstudyunitsandstudiestheshapeandstructuresoftheorgansofthebodysystembysystem.Thereareninesystemsinhumanbody:(1)locomotorsystem(运动系统),(2)alimentary(digestive)system(消化系统),(3)respiratorysystem(呼吸系统),(4)urinarysystem(泌尿系统),(5)Reproductive(genital)system(生殖系统),(6)endocrinesystem(内分泌系统),(7)circulatorysystem(循环系统,angiology),(8)nervoussystem(神经系统),(9)sensoryorgans(感觉器官).Regionalanatomytakesregions(suchasinguinalregionetc.)orareasasstudyunitsandstudiestheshapeandspatialinterrelationsoftheorgansorstructuresofthebodyregionbyregion.3.ThepartsofhumanbodyThehumanbodyisdividedintothetrunk,head,neck,upperlimbsandlowerlimbs.Theupperandlowerpartsofanterioraspectoftrunkisrespectivelycalledthorakandabdomen,whiletheupperandlowerpartsofposteioraspectoftrunkisrespectivelycalledbackandlumbar.Theposteriorpartofneckiscallednucha.Theupperlimbisdividedintoshoulder,arm,forearmandhand,theupperlimbisdividedintogluteus,thigh,legandfoot.4.Theanatomicaltermsusedoften:(1)Anatomicalposition(解剖姿势)：①Thebodystandsuperectly;②Thefaceisdirectedforward,theeyesseeforwardhorizontally;③Theheelsandtoesareclosedtogether,thetipsoffeetaredirectedforward;④Theupperlimbshangbythesidesofthebody;⑤Thepalmsofthehandsfaceforward.(2)Therelationalplanes:①Sagittalplane（矢状切面）:Itistheplanethatpassesthroughthebodyverticaltoitsanteriorsurfaceanddividesthebodyintoleftandrightparts.Themediansagittalplane(正中矢状切面):Itistheplanethatpassesthroughthemidlineofthebodyanddividesthebodyintosymmetricalleftandrightparts.②Coronal(frontal)plane冠状面(额状面):Itistheplanethatpassesthroughthebodyverticaltothesagittalplaneanddividesthebodyintoanteriorandposteriorparts.③Horizontal(transverse)plane水平面(横切面):Ittheplanethatpassesthroughthebodyverticaltobothsigittalandcoronalplanesanddividesthebodyintosuperiorandinferiorparts.Transverseandlongitudinalplanesforoneorgan:①transverseplane(横切面):Itistheplanethatisverticaltolongaxisoftheorgan.②longitudinalplane(纵切面):Itistheplanethatparallelstolongaxisoftheorgan.(3)Anatomicaldirections:①Anterior(ventral)前(腹侧):Itmeansnearerthefrontsurfaceofthebody.②Posterior(dorsal)后(背侧):Itmeansnearerthebacksurfaceofthebody.③Superior(上):Itmeansnearerthetopoftheheadorupperpartofastructureorthebody.④Inferior(下):Itmeansnearerthesolesofthefeetorthelowerpartofastructureorthebody.Sometimesinthetrunk,cranial(颅侧)isusedinsteadofsuperior,andcaudal(尾侧)insteadofinferior.⑤Medial(内侧):Itmeansnearertothemediansagittalplane.⑥Lateral(外侧):Itmeansfartherfromthemediansagittalplane.⑦Internal(内):Itmeansnearertothecenterofaholloworganorbodycavity.⑧external(外):Itmeansfartherfromthecenterofaholloworganorbodycavity.⑨Superficial(浅):Itmeansnearertothesurfaceofthebody.⑩deep(深):Itmeansfartherfromthesurfaceofthebody.Proximal(近侧)isusedtoindicatenearertotherootorattachedendofalimb.Distal(远侧)isusedtoindicatefartherfromtherootorattachedendofalimb.(4)Theaxisofthebody:①Thesagittalaxis(矢状轴):Itistheaxisthatpassesanteroposteriorlythroughthebodyandisverticaltoitsanteriorsurface,andparalleltosagittalplane.②Thecoronalaxis(冠状轴):Itistheaxisthatpassesright-leftthroughthebodyverticaltothesagittalaxis,andparalleltocoronalplane.③Theverticalaxis(垂直轴):Itistheaxisthatpassesthroughthebodyverticaltotheearthsurface,andverticaltothecoronalaxisandthesagittalaxis.

PartⅠTheLocomotorSystem运动系统Thelocomotorsystemincludesthreeparts:①bones(骨),②joints(关节)and③muscles(肌肉).Theindividualbonesofthebodyarelinkedtogetherbyjointstoformtheskeleton(骨骼).Thefunctionsoflocomotorsysteminclude:①toprovideaframeworkforthebody;②movement;③toprotectimportantorganssuchasbrain,heart,lungs,andliveretc.;④tobeastorehouseofminerals,suchascalcium,phosphorusetc.;⑤toformbloodcells.Skeletalmusclesareattachedtobonesandextendacrossjoints.Whencontracting,theyexertforceonthebonesandcausemovements.ChapterⅠ.Osteology骨学SectionⅠ.TheGeneralDescriptionofOsteology骨学总论Thereare206bonesinadult(includingthesixauditoryossicles听小骨).Eachboneisanorgan.Boneishardandresilient.Itpossessestheabilityofrepairing(修复),regeneration(再生)andreconstruction(重建).Thebonesofhumanbodycanbedividedintotheskull(颅骨),thebonesofthetrunk(躯干骨)andtheappendicularbones(附肢骨).1.TheShapeandClassificationofBonesAccordingtotheirshape,thebonesareclassifiedintofourtypes:longbones(长骨),shortbones(短骨),flatbones(扁骨)andirregularbones(不规则骨).shapeofbonelongbones(长骨)shortbones(短骨)flatbones(扁骨)irregularbones(不规则骨)(1)ThelongbonesLongbonesarefoundinlimbs.Eachofthemconsistsofashaft(干)orbodyandtwoendsorextremities(端).Thepartbetweentheshaftandendiscalledmetaphysis(干骺端).Thereisacavityintheinneroftheshaft,knownasmedullarycavity(骨髓腔).Itcontainsbonemarrowinlivingbones.Theextremitiesarewiderandarecalledepiphyses(骺).Thesmoothsurfacesoftheendsarecalledarticularsurfaces(关节面).Thearticularsurfacesarecoveredbyarticularcartilage(关节软骨).Thereisanepiphysialline(骺线)betweentheshaftandtheepiphyses,whichisfromossification(骨化)oftheepiphysialcartilages(骺软骨).(2)TheshortbonesTheyareroughlyincuboidshape.Theydistributeinwristandfootandincludethecarpalbones(腕骨)andtarsalbones(跗骨).(3)TheflatbonesTheyconsistoftwoplatesofcompactbonewithspongybonebetweenthem.Theflatbonesincludetheribs(肋),sternum(胸骨),scapulae(肩胛骨),andmanybonesoftheskull.Inthecranialbones,thelayersofcompactbonearecalledtheplatesoftheskull(theouterplateandtheinnerplate).Theinterveningspongysubstanceiscalledthediploe(板障).Thefunctionsofflatbonesareusuallytoprotecttheimportantorganssuchasthebrain,theheart,thelungs,theliverandthespleenetc,orprovidebroadsurfacesformuscularattachment.(4)TheIrregularbonesTheirregularbonesaregreatlyvariedinshape.Theyincludemanyofthecranialbones,thevertebrae,andthehipbones.Somecranialbonescontainair-filledcavitiesorsinuses(窦)andareknownaspneumaticbones(含气骨).Maxillae(上颌骨)aretheexamples.2.TheStructureofBonesLivingbonesconsistofbonysubstance(骨质),periosteum(骨膜)andbonemarrow(骨髓),andareabundantinbloodandnervesupply.bonebonysubstance(骨质)periosteum(骨膜)bonemarrow(骨髓)①compact(dense)bone骨密质②cancellous(spongy)bone骨松质(1)ThebonysubstanceThebonysubstanceisdividedintocompactordenseboneandcancellousorspongybone.Thecompactboneformstheshaftofthelongboneandtheexternallayerotherkindsofbone.Thecompactboneiscapableofresistingstressesandbending.Thecancellousboneconsistsofalotoftrabeculae,whichinterweaveeachotherlikesponge.Thespongybonedistributesinepiphysesandfillsintheinterior(内部)ofallbones.(2)Theperiosteumperiosteum骨膜①fibrousmembrane(纤维膜,outerlayer)②vascularmembrane(血管膜,innerlayer)Thewholeboneisinvestedbyperiosteumexceptthearticularsurfaces.Theperiosteumconsistsoftwolayers:anouterorfibrousmembrane(纤维膜)andaninnerorvascularmembrane(血管膜).Thelatterislinedwithbone-formingcells,theosteoblasts(成骨细胞).Theperiosteumplaysimportantrolesintheregenerationofthebones.Inordertopreventthebonynecrosis(坏死)ordelayedhealing(愈合),theperiosteumshouldbepreservedasmuchaspossibleinoperation.(3)Bonemarrowbonemarrow骨髓①redbonemarrow红骨髓②yellowbonemarrow黄骨髓Thebonemarrowisfoundinthemedullarycavitiesoflongbonesandwithinthespacesincancellousbone.Therearetwokindsofbonemarrow:redandyellow.Theredmarrowiscapableofmakingbloodcells.Itconsistsofmanydevelopingbloodcellsofvariedperiods.Theyellowmarrowcomprisesalotoffat.Atbirth,thecancellousboneandthemedullarycavitiesoflongbonesarefilledwithredmarrow.Bythesixthyear,theredmarrowinthemedullarycavitiesisgraduallyreplacedbyyellowmarrow.Atabout18thyear,redmarrowinthebonesoflimbsisalmostentirelyreplacedbyyellowone.Thereafter,itisconfinedtotheaxialskeleton(中轴骨)andthehipbones(髋骨),theupperendsoffemur(股骨)andhumerus(肱骨),andperformscontinuouslythefunctionofblood-forming.Apunctureoniliaccrest(orspinousprocessoflumbarvertebra,orsternum)toexaminethemarrowisausefulmethodtomakeadiagnosisofsomeblooddiseases.Insometypesofanemia(贫血),thedeathrateoftheredcellsishigh,theyellowmarrowrevertstoredinanendeavortosupportthebirthrate.3.TheChemicalCompositionandPhysicalPropertiesofBonesLivingbonesarechemicallycomposedoforganicandinorganiccomponents.Boneshaveanorganicframeworkoffibroustissueandcells,amongwhichinorganicsaltsaredeposited.Theorganicmaterials(有机质,themainoneiscollagen)form30-40%thedryweightofbone.Theinorganicmaterials(无机质,mineralsalts,themainoneiscalciumphosphate)form60-70%thedryweightofthebone.Inmaturelivingbone,aboutone-fifthoftheweightiswater.Theorganicmaterialsgivethebonesresilienceandtoughness;theinorganicmaterialsgivethemhardnessandrigidity.Thephysicalpropertiesofthebonesdependuponthechemicalcomponents.Ininfantsandchildren,theorganiccomponentsarerelativelymorethanthoseinadults,sotheirbonesaresofter,andareeasytobedeformed.Inoldpeople,theinorganiccomponentsarecomparativelymore,andbonefracture(骨折)intheagedpeopleismoreoften.Bysubmergingaboneinamineralacid(suchashydrochloricacid,HCl)thesaltscanberemoved,buttheorganicmaterialsremain.Suchaspecimen(标本)isflexible.Forexample,adecalcified(脱钙的)fibulacanbetiedinaknot.Byburningabonewithfire,theorganicmaterialisremoved,thisboneismorebrittlethanporcelain(瓷器).Itiscrumbledandfracturedeasily.4.TheBloodandNerveSupplyofBonesThebonesarefurnishedwithanabundanceoffinearteriolesandnerves.5.TheDevelopmentofBonesBonedevelopsfrommesoderm(中胚层).Atabouttheeighthgestationalweek(孕周),Therearetwopatternsofossification(骨化):①intramembranousossification(膜内成骨/膜化骨)and②intracartilaginous(endochondral)ossification(软骨内成骨/软骨化骨).(1)Intramembranousossification(膜内成骨/膜化骨):Theossificationtakesplaceinconnectivefibrousmembranewithoutinterventionofcartilageformation.Flatbonesandmanyirregularbonesaredevelopedinthisform.(2)Intracartilaginous(endochondral)ossification(软骨内成骨/软骨化骨):Theossificationtakesplaceincartilagemodels.Longbonesareformedinthisform.Somebonesdevelopfromasingleossificcenter(骨化中心),othershavetwoormorecentersofossification.Inlatter,theprimaryossificcenters(初级骨化中心)formtheshaftordiaphysis.Thesecondarycentersofossification(次级骨化中心)formtheepiphysis.Afteratimetheepiphysesareseparatedfromtheshaftbyepiphysialcartilage.Theincreaseofbonesinlengthtakesplaceatthecontinuousossificationoftheepiphysialcartilage(骺软骨).Eventuallytheepiphysialcartilagebecomesentirelyossified.Theepiphysialcartilagebecomestheepiphysialline.Whenthishastakenplace,nofurtherincreaseoftheboneinlengthcanoccur.Mostoftheepiphysesbecomecompletelyossifiedduringthe18th-20thyear,oneortwoyearsearlieringirlsthaninboys.Thedevelopmentoftheskeletonisfinishedentirelyinthe25thyear.6.TheFunctionsofBonesThefunctionsofbonescanbesummedupasfollows:(1)tobetheframeworkofthebody;(2)tobetheleversformuscles;(3)toprotectcertainimportantorgans;(4)tobethesitesforthedevelopmentofbloodcells;(5)tobethestorehouseofcalciumandphosphorus.SectionⅡ.TheBonesofTrunk躯干骨Thebonesoftrunkincludethevertebrae(椎骨),thesternum(胸骨),andtheribs(肋).Ⅰ.TheVertebrae(椎骨)Inachild,thenormalnumberoftheseparatevertebraeis33,whichinclude7cervical,12thoracic,5lumbar,5sacraland4coccygealvertebrae.Intheadult,the5sacralvertebraefusedwitheachothertoformthesacrum(骶骨),and4coccygealvertebraetoformthecoccyx(尾骨).(Ⅰ)ThegeneralfeaturesofthevertebraeAtypicalvertebra,thevertebrainthemiddlethoracicregion,ismadeupoftwoparts:thevertebralbody(椎体)andthevertebralarch(椎弓).Thevertebralbodyandthevertebralarchenclosethevertebralforamen(椎孔).Thearchhasapairofpediclesandapairoflaminae,whichextendssevenprocesses,viz.,fourarticularprocesses(关节突)andtwotransverseprocesses(横突)andaspine(棘突).(Ⅱ)Themaincharacteristicsofvertebraeineachregion1.Thethoracicvertebrae(胸椎)Thecharactersofthoracicvertebraeareasfollows:(1)Theyhavetwocostalfoveaoneachsideoftheirbodies;(2)Theyhavetransversefoveaontheirtransverseprocesses(apartfromthoseofthelowertwothoracicvertebrae).(3)Thespinesofthoracicvertebraearelonganddownwardsloping,thearticularfacetsofarticularprocessesarerelativelyvertical.2.Thecervicalvertebrae(颈椎)Thecharactersofthoracicvertebraeareasfollows:(1)Theyhavetransverseforamenineachtransverseprocess.(2)Theendofthetransverseprocessisbifucatedintoanteriorandposteriortubercls.(3)Thespinesareshortandbifidexceptthefirstandtheseventh.Thefirstcervicalvertebra,theatlas(寰椎),hasnobodyandnospine.Itconsistsofanteriorandposteriorarchesunitedoneachsidebyalateralmass.Thereisfoveadentis(齿突窝)atthemiddleoftheposteriorsurfaceoftheanteriorarch.Thesecondcervicalvertebra,theaxis,bearstheodontoidprocess(dens)onthesuperioraspectofitsbody,onwhichthereisananteriorarticularsurfaceofdensforarticulationwiththefoveadentisofatlas.Theseventhcervicalvertebraisknownasvertebraprominens.Itsnonbifidspineisrelativelylongandcanbeeasilyfelt.3.Thelumbarvertebrae(腰椎)Theirvertebralbodiesarelargerthanthoseofothervertebrae.Thespinesofthemarestrong,squareandhorizontal.Thearticularprocessesoflumbarvertebraearealmoststraightinaverticalplanewitharticularfacetswhichlieinthesagittalplane.4.Thesacrum(骶骨)Itismadeupoffivefusedvertebraeandroughlytriangular.Thesacrumpossessesabase,aapex,theanterior(pelvic),dorsal,andlateralsurfaces.5.Thecoccyx(尾骨)Thecoccyxismadeupoffour,moreorless,fusedcoccygealvertebrae.Itisroughlytriangular,taperingtoanapexbelow.Thebaseisarticulatedwiththeapexofthesacrum.Whenthevertebraeareplacedinseries,theseforaminaformthevertebralcanalwhichlodgesthespinalcordanditscoverings.Ⅱ.TheRibs(Costae肋)Eachribconsistsofthecostalbone(肋骨)andthecostalcartilage(肋软骨).Theribsareconnectedbehindwiththevertebralcolumnandaretwelveinnumberoneachside.Theuppersevenpairsofribsconnectedanteriorlybytheircostalcartilagestothesternum,andarereferredtoastrueribs(真肋).Thelowerfivepairsofribsfailtoreachthesternum,andarereferredtoasfalseribs(假肋).Thecostalcartilagesoftheeighth,ninthandtenthpairsofribsjointhecostalcartilageimmediatelyabovetoformthecostalarch.Thecartilagesoftheeleventhandtwelftharefree.Sothetworibsarecalledfloatingribs(浮肋).Ⅲ.TheSternum(胸骨)TheSternumisaflatbonewhichliesinthemidlineofanteriorwallofthoraciccage.Itconsistsofthemanubriumofsternum(胸骨柄),bodyofsternum(胸骨体)andxiphoidprocess(剑突).Thejunctionofthemanubriumandthebodyformsthesternalangle(胸骨角),whichisslightlyconvexforwardandeasilypalpatedevenintheobese.Thesternalangleisausefullandmarkinclinicwork.Forthelateralsidesofthesternalanglearearticulatedwiththesecondcostalcartilage,soaccordingtothis,theorderoftheribsandtheintercostalspacecanbedetermined.SectionⅢ.TheBonesofLimbs四肢骨TheBonesofLimbs(theappendicularskeleton,附肢骨)includesthebonesofupperlimbsandthebonesofthelowerlimbs.Theupperlimbsarereleasedfromweightbearingandbecometheorgansoflabour,sothebonesofupperlimbarelighterandsmallerinshapeandsizethanthoseoflowerlimbs.Ⅰ.TheBonesofUpperLimbs(上肢骨)Thebonesofupperlimbincludeshouldergirdle(肩带骨)andthebonesoffreeupperlimbs(自由上肢骨).Thebonesofshouldergirdleincludeclavicle(锁骨)andsccapula(肩胛骨).Thebonesoffreeupperlimbincludethebonesofarm(humerus/肱骨),thebonesofforearm(radius/桡骨andulna/尺骨)andthebonesofhand.1.Theclavicle(锁骨)TheclavicleisaS-shapedandcurvedrodofboneandextendsfromthesternumtotheacromionofthescapula.Itjoinsthetrunkwiththeupperlimb.2.Thescapula(肩胛骨)Thescapulaisatriangularflatbonesituatedontheposterolateralaspectofthethorax(胸部).Ithasthreeborders(themedial,lateralandsuperiorborders),threeangles(thesuperior,inferiorandlateralangles),andtwosurfaces(theanteriororcostalandposteriorordorsalsurfaces).3.Thehumerus(肱骨)Thehumerusisthebonesofarm,itisthelongestandlargestboneoftheupperlimb.Thehumerushasabody(shaft)andtwoends(extremities).4.Thebonesofforearm(前臂骨)Thebonesofforearmincluderadius(桡骨)andulna(尺骨).Theradiusisthelateralboneofthetwointheforearm.Ithasashaftandtwoends.Theulnaliesmedialtotheradius.Itisalsoalongbonewithtwoendsandashaft.5.ThebonesofhandThebonesofhandincludethreeparts:thecarpalbones(腕骨),themetacarpalbones(掌骨)andphalanges(指骨).(1)Thecarpalbones(thebonesofthewrist)/腕骨Theyareeightshortbones,arrangedintworowsoffour.Theproximalrow,fromthelateraltothemedial,containsthescaphoid,thelunate,andthetriquetralandpisiformbones.Thedistalrowcontainsthetrapezium,thetrapezoid,thecapitateandthehamatebones.(2)Themetacarpalbones(掌骨)Themetacarpalbonesarefiveinnumberandnumberedfromonetofivefromthethumbtothelittlefinger.Themetacarpalbonesarelongbones;eachoneconsistsofaproximalbase,ashaft,andadistalhead.(3)Thephalanges(指骨)Theyarelongbones,and14innumber,twoforthethumbandthreeforeachofotherdigits.Theyaretheproximalorfirst,themiddleorsecond,andthedistalorthirdphalanx.Ⅱ.TheBonesofLowerLimbTheyincludethebonesofthepelvicgirdle(盆带骨),thebonesofthigh(大腿骨),thebonesofleg(小腿骨)andthebonesoffoot(足骨).(Ⅰ).Thepelvicgirdle(盆带骨)—hipbones(髋骨)Itisformedbytwohipbones,whicharejoinedinfrontatpubicsympbysis.Eachhipboneconnectswiththesacrumposteriorly.Thepelvicgirdle,thesacrumandthecoccyxtogetherformthebonypelvis.Thehipboneofanewbornconsistsofthreecomponents:ilium,pubis,andischium.(Ⅱ)Thebonesoffreelowerlimb1.Thefemur(股骨)Itisthelongestandheaviestboneinthebodyandconsistsofashaftandtwoends.2.Thepatella(膑骨)Thepatellaisasesamoidbone.Itislocatedinthefrontofthekneejointandembeddedinthetendonofthequadricepsfemoris.3.ThebonesoflegTheyincludethetibia(胫骨)mediallyplaced,andthefibula(腓骨)laterallylocated.4.ThebonesoffootThebonesofthefootincludethreeparts:thetarsalbones(跗骨),themetatarsalbones(跖骨)andthephalanges(趾骨).SectionⅣ.TheSkull颅骨Theskull(cranium/颅骨)iscomposed23bones.Itcarriesoutthefunctionsofprotectionandsupportofthebrainandtheorgansofsight,hearingandbalanceetc.Theskulliscomposedoftwosetsofbones:①cerebralcranium(脑颅骨);②facialcranium(面颅骨).Ⅰ.ThecerebralcraniumThecerebralcraniumconsistsofeightcranialbones,whichconnectwithoneanothertoformthecranialcavityenclosingthebrain.Thecerebralcraniumincludesapairofparietalbone(顶骨),apairoftemporalbone(颞骨),onefrontalbone(额骨),oneoccipitalbone(枕骨),onesphenoidbone(蝶骨)andoneethmoidbone(筛骨).Ⅱ.ThefacialcraniumThefacialcraniumconsistsoffifteenfacialbones,whichformthebonyframeworkoftheface,theorbits,thenasalcavityandtheroofandlateralwallofthemouth.Thefacialcranialbonesincludethepaired①maxillae(上颌骨),②thepalatinebones(腭骨),③thezygomaticbones(颧骨),④thenasalbones(鼻骨),⑤thelacrimalbones(泪骨)and⑥theinferiornasalconchae(下鼻甲).Theunpairedfacialcranialbonesinclude①thevomer(梨骨),②themandible(下颌骨),and③thehyoid(舌骨).Ⅲ.TheSkullasaWhole(Ⅰ)ThesuperioraspectoftheskullTheskullisgenerallyovoidwhenviewedfromabove,andiswiderbehindthaninfront.Itisformedmainlybyfourcranialbones,thefrontalinfront,theoccipitalbehind,andthetwoparietalbetweenthem.(Ⅱ)TheposterioraspectoftheskullThelambdoidsuturecanbeseenthroughoutitsentirelength.Themostoutstandingfeatureoftheoccipitalboneisexternaloccipitalprotuberance.(Ⅲ)TheinternalsurfaceoftheskullbaseItisdividedintothreewell-markedfossatoadaptthecorrespondingpartsofthebrainatdifferentlevels.Thesearetheanterior,themiddle,andtheposteriorcranialfossa.(Ⅳ)TheexternalsurfaceoftheskullbaseItisveryirregularandhasmanyforaminaandfissuresfornervesandvessels.Itcanbedividedintotwoparts,anteriorandposterior.Theanteriorpartisformedbythehardpalateandthealveolararch.(Ⅴ)ThelateralviewofskullItisformedbythefrontal,parietal,occipital,temporal,sphenoid,zygomaticbones,themaxillaandthemandible.Thezygomaticarchisformedbytheprocessesofthezygomaticandtemporalbones.Abovethezygomaticarchisthetemporalfossa.(Ⅵ)Thefrontviewofskullⅰ.TheorbitsTheyaretwobonycavitieswhichcontaintheeyeballsandtheiraccessorystructures.Eachorbitisshapedroughlylikeafour-sidedpyramid,withitsapexposteromedially.ⅱ.ThebonynasalcavityItisanirregularspacewhichextendsfromtheroofofthemouthtothebaseofthecranialcavity.Asingleanteriornasalaperture(piriformaperture)presentsinfront.Thereis,however,apairofposteriornasalaperturesbehind,bywhichthenasalcavitycommunicateswiththenasopharynx.Thecavityisdividedintorightandlefthalvesbyanapproximatelymedianseptem(bonynasalseptem)formedbythevomerandtheperpendicularplateofethmoid.ⅲ.Theparanasalsinuses(鼻旁窦)Theparanasalsinusesareair-containingsacs,whicharearoundthenasalcavity.Theparanasalsinusesincludefourpairs:①thefrontalsinuses(额窦),②theethmoidalsinuses(筛窦),③thesphenoidalsinuses(蝶窦)and④themaxillarysinuses(上颌窦).Theirfunctionsaretoarouseresonancetothevoiceandmaketheskulllight.Ⅳ.TheSkullatBirthAtbirth,thecerebralcraniumisrelativelarge,aboutseven-eighthofthewholeskulltocomparewiththethree-fourthintheadult.Ossification(骨化)ofthecranialbonesofnewbornarenotcompleted,andmanyofthemconsistofmorethanonepiece.Theunossifiedmembranousintervalsaretermedfontanelles(囟/囟门).ChapterⅡ.Arthrology关节学SectionⅠ.TheGeneralDescriptionofArthrology关节学总论Theconnectionsorjunctionsbetweenbonesarecalledthejointorarticulation(关节/骨连结).Thebonescanbeconnectedtogetherbyfibrousconnectivetissue(纤维结缔组织),cartilaginoustissue(软骨组织)orosseoustissue(骨组织)atdifferentpartsoftheirsurfaces.Accordingtotheircharacteristicfeatures,jointscanbeclassifiedintotwomaintypes:thesynarthrosis(不动关节)anddiarthrosis(可动关节).Ontheamountofmovementofjoints,threegroupscanbeidentified:immovablejoints(不动关节),slightlymovablejoints(微动关节)andfreelymovablejoints(自由运动关节).1.TheSynarthroses(不动关节)Thesynarthrosesisalsocalleddirectconnection(直接连结).Thismeansthatthebonesareheldtogetherandthereisnospacebetweenthearticulatingbones.Thesynarthrosesincludethefibrousjoints(纤维连结),thecartilaginousjoints(软骨连结)andsynosteosis(骨性结合).Thereisnoactivemovementsatthesejoints.(1)Thefibrousjoints(纤维连结)Thefibrousjointmeansthebonesareunitedtogetherbyfibrousconnectivetissue.Thereisnotanycavitybetweenthebones.Theamountofmovementdependsonthelengthofthefibersunitingthebones.Thefibrousjointsaredividedintothreetypes:suture(缝),gomphosis(钉状嵌合)andsyndesmosis(韧带连结).①Thesutures(缝)Theseparatedbonesareheldtogetherbyathinlayeroffibrousconnectivetissue.Periosteumiscontinuousfrombonetobone,overthesuture.Thesutureisextremelytightandthereislittleornomovementbetweenthebones.Withage,thefibroustissueisgraduallyreplacedbybonetissueandthesuturebecomesasynosteosis.②Thegomphosis(钉状嵌合):Likeinasuture,averysmallamountoffibroustissueanchorsatoothintoitsalveolus(牙槽)inthemaxillaormandible.③Thesyndesmoses(韧带连结)：Thebonesareheldtogetherbyaninterosseousligament(骨间韧带)ormembrane(骨间膜),oraslenderfibrouscord.Forinstance,theyellowligamentsjointheadjacenttwovertebralarches.Theinterosseousmembranesoftheforearm(前臂骨间膜)andtheleg(小腿骨间膜)canbeconsideredassyndesmosis.Syndesmosesdopermitaslightdegreeofmovement,buttheirchieffunctionistoprovideastableunion.(2)Thecartilaginousjoints(软骨连结)Thecartilaginousjointsaredividedintotwotypes:synchondrosis(透明软骨结合)andsymphysis(纤维软骨结合).Whentheunitingtissue