论中学生英语口语错误的分析和纠正策略英文版

.IntroductionInthetwenty-firstcentury,anewunderstandingoflanguageerrorsbecomesanimportantachievementinthefieldofforeignlanguageacquisition.Learningalanguagehastoundergoalongprocess.Inthisprocess,languagelearnersareusingatransitionallanguage.Thistransitionallanguageisnotlikeourmothertonguebutalanguagewhichisalwayschanging.Itmaycontainmanylanguageerrorsinit.Theselanguageerrorsarethesigntoimprovetheprocessoflanguagelearning.Itcanprovideteacherswithaveryusefulfeedbackandhelpthemtounderstandwhatstagetheirstudentsarelearning.Thatistosaylanguageerrorsaretheindispensablepartoflanguagelearning.Ifstudentsmaketheseerrors,itisnotduetoteachersnortextbooksnorthemselvesdirectly.Itisjustanaturalandnecessaryphenomenonintheprocessoflanguagelearning.Errorisduetoinformallearningthatistosaythestudents’brainhasstoredsomeinformationofwronglanguage.Sometimeslearnersmakeoralerrorsbecausethewronginformationintheirbrains.Errorsinspokenlanguagelearningareubiquitousandinevitable.Ifweknowthedeepunderstandingoftheselanguageerrors,itwillbeusefulforEnglishlearning.Thefirstisthatitcangiveteacherstheinformationabouttheirstudents’Englishlearning.Thesecondisthatitisavailableforresearcherstomasterthelanguage.Thethirdisthatitactsasthetoolforlearnerstofindtargetlanguagerules.Thusshowsthaterroranalysisofspokenlanguageisextremelyimportant.2.ReasonsofErrorAnalysisTheadoptionoferroranalysisisclassifiedintothreeparts:toresearchers,tolanguageteachers,andtolearnersthemselves.Whileanalysisoflearner’serrorsprovidesinsightsintothenatureoflanguage,especiallyintotheinnatenatureofthelearner’ssystem,theyprovideevenmoreinsightsintotheprocessoflanguageteachingandlearning.Assuch,specificconclusionmayusuallybedrawnfromtheresultsoftheanalysisregardinghowasecondorforeignlanguagecanbemoreeffectivelytaughtandlearned,orhowexistingmethodsofteachingandlearningcanbeimproved.Indecidingwhatshouldbethelinguisticinputtolanguageteachingmaterials,weshouldcertainlyexamineandexploreanexplanationfortheerrorsthataretypicallymadebydifferentgroupsoflearners.Fromwhichwehaveseenitisclearthattheexplanationwillprovetobepartlycontrastiveandpartlynon-contrastivebetweenfirstlanguageandsecondlanguage.Thefactthaterrormaybecausedbycontrastivedifferencesandbythestructureofthetargetlanguageitselfmeansthatitisimpossibletobasethecontentoflanguageteachingentirelyontheresultsofcontrast.Evenifitwerepossibletomakewhollyaccuratepredictionsofcontrastivedifficulties,weshouldnotpredictallthedifficultiesthatalearnerfaces.Thestructureofthesecondlanguageitselfhastoprovidemuchofthecontentoflanguageteaching.Itcannotbeassumedthatnon-contrastiveaspectsoflanguagewilllookafterthemselves.ThisprobablyaccountsforthefactthatanyonewhohastaughtEnglishtostudentsfromdifferinglanguagebackgroundshasfoundthattherearemanyaspectsofthestructureofEnglishwhichareuniversallydifficultforlearnersofEnglishasasecondlanguage.Therefore,errorsarealsousefulinassertingteachingmethod.Thecareer-orientedmotivationofthepopulationofsubjectsbeinginvestigatedisdifferentfromthatofanyotherpopulationofEnglishmajorsontheothercampuses.Assuch,bettercommandofwrittenEnglishappearsmoreimportanttothemthantootherEnglishmajorsontheothercollegecampuseswhomayormaynotenterintotheTEFL(teachingEnglishasaforeignlanguage)profession.3.ErrorTypesandCausesInthissection,thispaperwillanalyzedifferenttypesoferrors.Inall,students’oralerrorsarecausedbymothertongueinterference,theprocessoflanguagelearning,communicationstrategiesandinducedfactors.Thereasonsofstudents’oralerrorsareclassifiedintofiveaspectsaccordingtothetypesoferrors:theinfluenceofmothertongue,inappropriateteachingmethods,overuseoffillinglanguageandstudents’internalfactors.3.1ErrorTypesMiddleschoolstudents’oralerrorsaredividedintofourtypeswhicharecausedeitherbystudents’internalpersonalitiesorbytheinducedsurroundings.Theiroralerrorsareunavoidable.While,afterwehavelearnedthetypesoferrors,wecanfindappropriatestrategiesaccordingtoerrortypesandhelpthemcorrectthoseerrors.3.1.1ErrorsCausedbyMotherTongueInterferenceThefirstsourceoferrorsismothertongueinterference.Itmainlyreferstothelearner’sfirstlanguageerrorsproducedbyinterferenceformationacquisition.ChinesestudentsareinfluencedbytheirmothertonguewhenlearningEnglish.Asfarasmothertongueinterferenceisconcerned,thereisakindofmistakesthatlearnerssometimesmakewhentheyusetheirpreviousmothertongueknowledgeasameansofexpressingtheirideas.ForChineselearnersofEnglish,thetypicalinstancetransferredfromourmothertonguearetheuseof“because...so...”AlthoughitiscorrecttousethesetwoconjunctivestogetherincombiningsentencesinChinese,itiswrongtodosoinEnglish.Andthisissimilarwith“although...but...”Anotherexampleofmothertongueinterferenceisthatweoftensay“he”whilewereallymean“she”.Thecauseisthis:thetwoChinesecharactersarespelleddifferentlywhiletheirpronunciationsarethesame.Thismayresultinmistakesfromwhichevensomelearnerscannotgetaway.3.1.2ErrorsCausedbytheProcessofLanguageLearningOnthecontrary,thesecondsourceoferrorsisproducedbytheprocesswhenlearnersarelearningthetargetlanguage.ChinesestudentsmayhavethiskindoferrorswhenlearningEnglishgrammarrulesorotheraspectsofEnglishlearning.Inall,therearetwospecifiedtypes.Thefirstoneisover-generalization.Over-generalizationrefersthatEnglishlearnerstrytoexpressnewconceptionwiththeknowledgetheyhavelearned.Thatistosay,theyhavemasteredtherulesofthelanguage,butinfact,theydonnotunderstandthem.Hereisanexample:havinglearnedaruleforformingplurals,astudentmayproduce“Ihavemorethantwentytooths”,inwhichtheattempt“tooths”isoneoftheexceptionstotheruleandshouldbespelledas‘teeth’.Similarerrorslike“runed”and“taked”occurfromtimetotime.Thereisanotherexample,“Hemaydances”.Learnersknow“Hesmiles;Heruns,etc”,sotheyputa“s”after“dance”withoutthinkingabouttheusageoftheverb“may”,thustheymakeerrorsofover-generalization.Thesecondoneisignoranceofrulerestriction.Ignoranceofrulerestrictionrefersthatlearnersdonotobeytothespecialrestrictionsofsomelanguagestructureandmakewrongsentences.Forexample:“Ihelpedhimtodoit”.Inthissentence,learnersignoredthespecialusageof“help”,theyput“to”after“help”andmadeawrongsentence.3.1.3ErrorsCausedbyInducedFactorsThethirdsourceoferrorsisinducedfactors,whichiscalledinducederrors.Theword“Inducederrors”refersthatmoreoflearners’languageerrorscomefromclassroomteaching.Thisisbecauseofteachers’inappropriatewaysofteachingthedefinition,analysisandexamplesoflanguage,orinappropriatearrangementofteachingactivities.Therearetwotypesofinducederrorsthatcontributetostudents’oralerrors.Thefirstpartofinducederrorsisformtextbooks.Inthesentencebelow,agirlisaskinghermotherforadvicethatwhatbirthdaypresentsheshouldbuyforherfriendRuby.Mother:Isuggestyoubuyheralovelyrabbit.Daughter:Oh,thatisagoodideamother!That’swhatI’mgoingtogiveRuby.“I’mgoingto”expressesthathehasalreadyknowwhattobuybeforeaskinghismother,thisdoesnotaccordwiththemeaningoftheconversation.Intheconversation,“rabbit”ischosentobeapresentisasuddendecision,soweshoulduse“will”insteadofit.Thesecondpartofinducederrorsisfromteachers.InChina,oneofthemostfrequentwaysforteacherstoexplainwordsisparaphrasinginEnglishteachingclass.Forexample:whenteachersareexplainingtheword“marked”inphase“markedprogress”,theymayuse“big,large,great”toexplaintoletstudentsunderstanditeasily.Theyseldommentionthecorrectwordscollocation,soweoftenhear“bigburden,largeharm,etc”instudents’oralEnglishwithidiomaticwrongcollocation.Locallearnerstendtoexpresslike“heavyburden,greatharm”.Thethirdpartofinducederroristeachers’tongueslip.Whenteaching,teachersoftenmakesomesentencesthatdonotobeytogrammarrulesbecauseoftheirownlanguagecapacityconstraints.3.1.4ErrorsCausedbyCommunicationStrategiesTheforthsourceoferrorsiscommunicationstrategies.Whentheyareengagedincommunication,juniorlearnersofEnglishmightoftenhavecommunicativeintentionsthattheyfinddifficultinexpressingameaningforwhichtheircompetencecontainsnoappropriateitemsorrulesatall.Ifalearnerisabletoanticipatesuchaproblem,hemaybeabletoforestallitbyavoidingcommunicationormodifyingwhatheintendedtosay.Iftheproblemariseswhilethelearnerisalreadyengagedinspeaking,hemusttrytofindanalternativewayforpassingthemeaningacross.Inordertogetthewantedmeaningacross,theyarecompelledtobridgethecommuni-cationbyresolingtomatchinglanguageitems,whichturnsouttobeinappropriate,orpragmaticallyunfit,totheimmediatesituation.Consequently,acommunicationbreakdownisoftenthecase.Thelearnerhasmemorizedcertainphrasesorsentenceswithoutlearningtheinternalizedknowledgeofthecomponentsofthephrases.Forexample,“Idon’tcareyou’’,“Howoftendoyouwashyourclothes?”,”Whereisthepostoffice?”and“Idon’tspeakJapanese.”agethesortsofprefabricatedpatternsthatonesometimeslearnsatthebeginningofalanguagelearningexperiencewhenthestructureoflanguageisnotknown.Suchphrasesarememorizedbyrotetofittheirappropriatecontext.Butintheprocessofmemorizing,oneortwocomponentsmayhememorizedwrongly,whichresultsinerrors.Forexample,“Howoftendoyouwashyourclothes?”mayhememorizedas“Howoftendoyouwashesyourclothes?”and”Couldyoutellmewherethepostofficeis?”as“Couldyoutellmewhereisthepostoffice?”Theerrorsareduelargelytotherotenatureoftheitems,buttheirroteisafactorofalackofknowledgeofthestructuralrulesforformingtheparticularutterance.3.2CausesofErrorsAsthetypesoferrorsabovesuggestthatstudents’oralerrorswerecausedbythewrongconceptionsintheirbrain.Thesewronglanguageconceptionsarecausedbythefactorsbelow.3.2.1TheInfluenceofMotherTongueManyteachersbelievethatstudents’oralerrorswerecausedbytheirmothertongue.Mothertonguemayinterferestudents’acquisitionofforeignlanguage.Therearetwotypesofinterference:speechinterferenceandsemanticinterference.Besides,semanticinterferenceismoreobvious,suchasChinglishwhichisbelongtothistypeofinterference.Forexample:”Pleaseopenthewindow”.Inthissentence,wemayuse“unlock”toexpressopen,buttherearemanywaysofexpressingtheword“open”inChinese,suchasopenthefridge,unlockthelock,drivethetaxi,haveameetingandsoon.Chinesestudentstendtouseoneverbtoexpressmanyconceptionswhentheyaretalkingabouttheword“open”inEnglishsentences.3.2.2InappropriateTeachingMethodsInappropriatewaysofteachingorinappropriatechoiceoftextbooksmaycauseinducederrors.Forexample,ifteachersdidn’texplainthelanguagephenomenaclearly,whichcausestudentsgotafuzzyunderstandingofit.Onthecontrary,ifthelanguagephenomenonisoveremphasized,studentsmayconsideritasaformularyandoveruseitinimpropersituations.Thenteacher’sreactionstooralerrorsareexplainedindetail.Firstofall,thewaythatteachersreacttoamistakeissignificant.Notonlywhatteacherssay,butalsothewaytheylook,ormove,thetoneoftheirvoiceareimportant.Ifstudentsarecriticizedfortrying,theywillstopit.Teachersaredividedintotwomajorgroupswhoduetotheextentoftheircorrection:theheavycorrectorandthenon-correctors.Bothsidesofthecorrectorsareexcessive.Ononehand,theheavycorrectorcreatesatenseteacher-focusedatmospherewhichblocksthestudents’creativitybypayingmoreattentiontoaccuracyratherthanfluency,imagination,independentthinking.Studentstendtobecautiousallthetimeandlearntocomeupwithfixedphrases.Thisresultsintheirinabilitytomakenewinterestingsentences.Tensionwhichiswidespreadintheclassroomoftheheavycorrectoralsoimpedesstudentsfromfreethinkingandefficientlearning.Theresultsofnon-correctorarenomistakesandonprogresswhenmakinglearningsteps.Moreover,studentswhoarecorrectedallthetimesoongetboredwithit,especiallyiftheyaretryingtoexpressthemselves.Therefore,theheavycorrectingteachercausesstudentproblems.Uptomow,theinternalstruggleonthepartoftheteacherisoftenpresentaswell:oftenteachersdonotwanttoovercorrect,buttheyfeelthatistheirresponsibility.Themostobviouspointisthatteachersendupcorrectingrighttoright,orevenrighttowrong.Ontheotherhand,thenon-correctorcreatesproblemsfocusedonteachersthemselves.Firstly,suchteachersmayfeelguiltyasnotdoingwhatmustbedone.Inadditiontothis,thenon-correctingteachersmayoftenreceiveanumberofcomplaintsfromschoolauthorities,parents,andstudentsthemselves.Schoolauthoritiesandparentsareespeciallydissatisfiedwhentheteacherispreparingthestudentsforanexamination,becauseexaminationsaregenerallyaccuracy-based.Studentsthemselveswanttoknowtheirmistakesandimprove.Studentsrarelycomplainopenlyaboutbeingcorrectedtoomuch.Onthecontrary,themajorityofstudentswanttobecorrectedastheyconsiderittobehelpfulaswellasuseful.Moreover,itisthetraditionalviewofwhatalanguageteacherdoes.Onemoreproblemofanon-correctoristheirdeterioratingimageasstudentstendtothinkofsuchteachersaslazy,irresponsibleorincompetent.Finally,students“learn”mistakesfromeachotheriftheyarenotcorrectedand,consequently,donotmakeprogressastheydonotknowwhatisrightandwhatiswrong.

3.2.3CulturalDifferenceChinesestudentsmaymakecommunicativemistakeswhencommunicatingwithlocalEnglishspeakers,becausetheydon’tknowtheculturedifferencebetweenEnglishspeakingcountriesandChina.Becauseoftheculturedifference,somecommonthingsinonecultureareregardedasrudebehaviorortaboointheotherculture.Studentscanspeakonesentencewhichistotallycorrectbothingrammaticalstructureandtheusageofwords,butitcannotbeappropriateincommunicativesituations.Thisoftenhappensaroundus.Forexample,ifyouaskanEnglishfriend,“Howoldareyou?,orwheredoyouwork?”,youwillnoticethathemayfeelnegativeorheisnotwillingtoansweryourquestions.Inhisopinion,thiswayofaskingisveryimpolite,becauseitisrelatedtohisprivacy.Hereisonemoreexample.MissHuangaskedanAmericanwomannamedLisatotakephotosforherfriendsandher.AfterMissHuangtoldLisahowtouseheriPhone,LisacheckedtheiPhoneandsaid,“ShallIjustpressthispart?”.“Ofcourse”,MissHuanganswered.Lisagotangrywithherafterthat,butMissHuangdidn’tnoticethat.Theexampleaboveisapragmaticfailure.Withtheignoranceofthecontext,MissHuang’sanswer,“Ofcourse”showsthereproachofvoice,whichmeansthattheLisaistoostupidtoasksuchobviousquestion.That’swhyLisagotangryatthattime.3.2.4OveruseofFillingLanguageWhenChinesestudentscommunicatewithothersinEnglish,theywillfrequentlyusethefillinglanguage,suchas,“OK,youknow,Ithink,yousee,right”intheiroralEnglish.Let’staketheword“OK”asanexample.Inthesamecontext,Chinesestudentsandlocalspeakerstendtomakedifferentpreference.Chinesestudentstendtouse“OK”,whilelocalspeakerstendtouse“well”orotherfillinglanguage.Forexample:A:Whatkindofclothesdoyoulikebest?B:Iguess,Idon’tlikesuits.A:Areyoulisteningtomyquestion?Whichdoyoulike?B:Oh,myfavoriteclothes.OK,Ilikesportsclothes.IfeelfreeandcomfortablewhenIamwearingsportsclothesandIhatesuits.Mm,itmakesmeOK,inall,Ilikesports.Inthecontextabove,Bused“OK”threetimesasfillinglanguage.While,mostlocalspeakerswilluse“will”insteadof“OK”.Because“well”hasthefunctionofdelayingtheanswers.Chinesestudentstendtouse“OK”.Ononehand,whichisprobablythattheydon’tknowthespecificfunctionof“well”orotherfillinglanguage.Ontheotherhand,itisindicatedthat“OK”hasbecomeapetphraseamongthem,whichisoverusedtoexpresssomemeaningorfunctionwhichthelocallanguagecan’t.3.2.5InternalFactorsofStudentsThemselvesWhenstudentsareinahurry,tiredness,thinkingaboutsomethingelsewhenlearningEnglish,thesemaycauseslipsofthetongue.Apartfromthis,theadditionofthefactorsaretiredness,forgetfulness,emotionalstate,imaginationandcreativity.Onthewhole,itisimportantforateachertobearinmindthesefactorsaserrorsareonlytheresultsofthese.Ithelpstomakeadecisionwhenandwhattocorrect.Ifastudentmakesacomplicatederrorwhileexperimentingwithinthelanguageorwhilehypothesis-forming,correctionmaynotbeappropriate.Otherwise,theymaylosethepositiveattitudetowardsthelanguagelearning.4.FactorsAffectingErrorTreatmentWehavediscussedthemaintypesoforalerrorsandreasonsoforalerrorsmadebyjuniorEnglishlearners.However,onlyknowingtheerrorsisnotenough,languageteachersshouldtreattheseerrorsproperlytofacilitatestudents’learningandhelpthemprogresstowardthetargetlanguage.Inordertomakefulluseofstudents’errors,propertreatmentisneeded.Whileintreatingstudents’errors,factorsthataffecterrortreatmentandtechniquesoftreatingthemshouldbepaidmuchattentiontoandteachersshouldtakethefollowingfactorsintoconsideration.4.1AccuracyandFluencyWhetherstudents’errorsshouldbecorrecteddependsontheaimofteaching,accuracyorfluency.Thesolutiontothisproblemliesinthewaypeopleregardthefunctionoflanguage.Methodstraditionallyusedinforeignlanguageinstructionandteachingmaterialemphasizemanipulativeskillsoflanguage.Theformalelementsofallutteranceareheavilystressedatthecostoftheinformationtobeconveyed.Underthiseducationalsetting,learner’serrorsareheavilysupervisedandcorrectedwiththeconceptthatonlyperfectlearningcanformcorrectlearninghabits.ThusconformityandaccuracyoftheutterancearethetopprioritiesinEnglishteachingandlearning.Furtheritisoverwhelminglybelievedthattheprimarygoaloflanguagelearningisconformityandaccuracyoflinguisticitems.Thusteacherstendtocorrectallerrorscommittedbythelearners.Thefactis,however,thatifteachersandstudentspaymuchattentiontocorrectnessandaccuracyoflanguage,wedonotseemtousealanguageata11.Insteadoffocusingontheformsoflanguage,teachersshouldnotinterruptstudents’communicativemotivationasfrequentlyaspossible.Sincestudentsageactivelyexploringandexperiencingwithlanguage.Whatisimportantinthecommunicationactivityisthewell-conveyedideaandcontent,notthewell-formedstructures.Aslongasthecomprehensibilityofthelanguageisnotaffected.Overtcorrectionofstudents’errorsisnotadvisableforfrequentinterventionofstudentscommunicationmayunderminebothstudents’risk-takingadventureoflanguagelearningandfurthercommunicativeintentions.Beawareofthefactthatlearningalanguagemeansmorethanlearninglotsofbitsoflinguisticforms,andtheefficientway,andperhapstheonlywaytolearntocommunicateinalanguageisactuallytocommunicateinthatlanguage.However,itisnecessarytomakesomepointstoeliminatemisunderstandingrelatedtotheconceptofaccuracyandfluency.Firstly,emphasisoncorrectproductionofEnglishandespeciallygrammaticalcorrectnessisnotincompatiblewiththeencouragementofthespontaneouscommunicationofideasinEnglish.Secondly,learningtospeakcorrectEnglishgrammaticalformsdoesnotimplymonotonousdrillslackingmeaningfulcommunication.Thirdly,itisalsoimportantthatsuccessfulcommunicationdependsonacertainlevelofaccuracy,thustheadvocacyoffluencyandaccuracyincommunicationisnotcontradictoryinitself.Finally,inEnglishteachingoccupation,itisgenerallyacknowledgedthattheteacher’staskistohelpstudentsprogressthroughfluencytowardaccuracy.4.2AffectiveConcernswithErrorTreatmentManyteachersfeelitisimportanttomaintaincontroloverthelearners’behaviorinclass.Errorcorrectionintheclassroomisusedasaformofdisciplinaryaction.Teachersseemtocarelittleaboutstudents’self-esteem,whichisconcernedwithreceptivity.Toopromptreactionandtoosevereerrortreatmentwillprobablyleadthestudentstomakemoreerrors(asaresultoffrustrationandanxiety)ortoaclimateofstiffnon-communicationintheclassroom.Goodclassroommanagementcreatesalearningenvironmentinwhicheffectiveteachingandlearningoccurwhilepoorclassroommanagementoftendamagesthestudents’desireforlearningandspoilstheteacher’spassionforteachingnomatterhowwellhehaspreparedfortheclass.Classroommanagementcertainlyinvolvesdiscipline,controlandpunishmenttoagreatextent.Teacher’sbeingover-criticalofstudents’errorsisoneofthemajorsourcesofanxietiesthatiscapableofhinderinglearningandmakesthelearnersreluctanttoparticipateinclassroomactivities.Therefore,itisveryimportantthatteacherstrytocreatearelaxingatmosphereintheclassroom.Thereareanumberofgeneralbasalrulesforteacherstominimizedisruptivebehaviors：Firstly,setupafriendlyrelationshipwiththestudents.Secondly,cultivateandmaintainahighself-esteemofthestudents.Astudentwithhighself-esteemtendstodisplaypositivetraitssuchasexpectationofachievement,boldnessinattemptingtocommunicateandallegosstrongenoughtoovercomefailureandsetbacks.ThesepeculiarityallcontributestosuccessfulEFL(EnglishasaForeignLanguage)learning.Thirdly,givepromptencouragementtothestudents.Fourthly,haveaccesstoeverystudentintheclass.Iflanguageteachersareabletomanagetheclassroomactivitiespermanentlybythesegeneralroles,theymayfindtheteachingmoreeffectiveandtheteacher-studentrelationmoresatisfactoryandpleasant.5.ErrorCorrectionWhenerrorsarecommitted,themostimportantdecisionregardingerrortreatmenthastobemadeoverandoveragain:whentocorrecterrorsorwhotocorrecterrorsandhowtocorrectthemmoreeffectively.5.1CorrectionTimeWhenisthebesttimetocorrectmistakes?Firstly,ifanerroroccursduringoralgrammarorvocabularypracticeduringthelessonitisbesttocorrectitimmediately.Onthespot,correctionisnecessaryinordertoavoidconfusingtheotherstudents.Secondly,ifmistakesoccurduringfree-speaking,theteachercaneithernoteerrorsonasheetofpaperforlatercorrectionduringafeedbackcorrectionslotaftertheactivity,orusesilentcorrectiontechniquesforimmediatecorrection.Itissuggestednottointerruptthespeaker.5.2PersonsofErrorCorrectionThemostcommonsourceoffeedbacktolanguagelearnersinclassroomsistreatmentprovidedbytheteacher.Ifitisnottheteacherwhotreatstheerror,thenitcouldbeeitherthelearnerswhocorrecterrorsthemselvesoranothermembersoftheclass.TeachercorrectionismorecommonthancorrectionbystudentsthemselvesandcorrectionbyclassmatesinChina,ofwhichculturemaybethemainreason.Asaresult,juniorstudentstendtorelyheavilyontheirteachersonalmosteveryaspectoflearning.Theirlearningisratherpassiveandtheyconsidertheirteacherstheonlysourceofknowledgeanderrorcorrectiontheirteachers’job.Itissuggestedthatthe“monitor”(alabelfortheinternalized“editor”orcollectionofrulesonehaslearned)canpreventorrepairsomeerrorsundersomeconditions.Theseconditionsincludeafocusonform,ratherthanoncommunicationofmeaning,andadequatetimeforthelearnertoprocesstheoutput.Sowhenpossible,wewouldbepleasedtoseelearnersabletoapplytherulestheyhavelearnedtocorrecttheirownmistakes.Andafteradetaileddescriptionoftherelatedrulesbytheteacher,thelearnerscancorrecttheirerrorsindependentlyandcanremembertherulesmoreclearly.Anotherpossibilityisthatotherlearnersintheclassroomcouldhelptoprovidecorrectivefeedback.Someresearchersfoundtheytreatedeachother’serrorsveryinfrequentlybutwhentheydid,theywerefivetimesmorelikelytoberightthantonottocorrect.Eachofthewayshastheirownadvantagesanddisadvantagesinlanguageteachingandlearning.However,students’preferenceshouldnotbeneglected.5.3TheStrategyofErrorCorrectionWhatkindoferrorsstudentwillmakeintheclassisunexpected.Howtocorrecttheiroralerrorsrequireslanguageteacherstoresponsequicklyandappropriately.Correctingeverysmallerrordoesnotmeanthatstudentscanlearnmorefromit,whilenotcorrectingalsodoesnotindicatethatitcreatesarelaxingandfreeatmosphereandstimulatesactivelearning.Correctionshouldbedoneappropriatelytooffersupportstostudentsandnottointerruptlanguagelearningprocess.Asfarasthewaysofcorrectionareconcerned,thestrategiesoferrorcorrectionaredistinguishedintotwoparts:correctionbystudentsthemselveswithteachers’helpandcorrectionbyclassmates,whichshouldbeencouragedinclassroomteaching.5.3.1CorrectionbyStudentsThemselveswithTeachers’HelpCorrectionwhichismadebystudentsthemselvesisespeciallyimportantasitgivesachanceforthespeakerwhomadeasliporacovertmistaketoself-correctthemselves.Teachers’correctiondoesnotalwayswork.Sometimes,s