国外组织行为学课件皮尔森ch07课件

Chapter

7

/

Slide

11.

Definegroups

anddistinguishbetweenformal

andinformal

groups.3.

Explainhowgroupsizeandmemberdiversityinfluencewhatoccursingroups.Chapter

7

/

Slide

2Learning

Objectives

(continued)5.

Discussthecausesandconsequencesof6.

Explainthedynamicsof

social

loafing.Chapter

7

/

Slide

3Learning

Objectives

(continued)7.

Discusshowtodesignandsupport

self-managed

teams.9.

Understand

virtual

teams

andwhatmakesChapter

7

/

Slide

4•

Interactionisthemostbasicaspectofagroup.•

Interdependencemeansthatgroupmembersrelytosomedegreeoneachothertoaccomplishgoals.Chapter

7

/

Slide

5•

Whyisgroupmembershipimportant?–

Groupsexertinfluenceonus.–

Groupsprovideacontextinwhich

we

areabletoexertinfluenceon

others.Chapter

7

/

Slide

6•

Formal

work

groups

aregroupsthatareestablishedbyorganizationstofacilitatetheachievementoforganizationalgoals.•

Themostcommonformalgroupconsistsofamanagerandtheemployeeswhoreporttothemanager.•

Othertypesofformalworkgroups:–

Taskforces–

CommitteesChapter

7

/

Slide

7•

Theyareseldomsanctionedbytheorganization.•

Informalgroupscaneitherhelporhurtanorganization,dependingontheirnormsforbehaviour.Chapter

7

/

Slide

8•

Groupsarecomplexsocialdevices.•

Theyrequireafairamountofnegotiationandtrial-and-errorbeforeindividualmembersbegintofunctionasatruegroup.•

Howdogroupsdevelop?Chapter

7

/

Slide

9•

Groupsdevelopthroughaseriesofstagesovertime.•

Eachstagepresentsthememberswithaseriesofchallengestheymustmastertoachievethenextstage.•

Thestagesmodelisagoodtoolformonitoringandtroubleshootinghowgroupsaredeveloping.Chapter

7

/

Slide

10TypicalStagesofGroupDevelopment(continued)•

Notallgroupsgothroughthesestages.•

Theprocessappliesmainlytonewgroupsthathavenevermetbefore.Chapter

7

/

Slide

11Chapter

7

/

Slide

12•

Groupmemberstrytoorientthemselvesby“testingthewaters.”•

Thesituationisoftenambiguous,andmembersareawareoftheirdependencyoneachother.Chapter

7

/

Slide

13•

Conflictoftenemergesatthisstage.•

Confrontationandcriticismoccurasmembersdeterminewhethertheywillgoalongwiththewaythegroupisdeveloping.•

Sortingoutrolesandresponsibilitiesisoftenatissue.Chapter

7

/

Slide

14•

Compromiseisoftennecessary.•

Informationandopinionsflowfreely.Chapter

7

/

Slide

15•

Achievement,creativity,andmutualassistanceareprominentthemesatthisstage.Chapter

7

/

Slide

16•

Ritesandritualsthataffirmthegroup’sprevioussuccessfuldevelopmentarecommon.Chapter

7

/

Slide

17•

Amodelofgroupdevelopmentthatdescribeshowgroupswithdeadlinesareaffectedbytheirfirstmeetingsandcrucialmidpointtransitions.•

Equilibrium

meansstability.•

Doesthesequencesoundfamiliartoyou?Chapter

7

/

Slide

18•

Thefirstmeetingiscriticalinsettingtheagendaforwhatwillhappenintheremainderofthephase.•

Thegroupmakeslittlevisibleprogresstowardthegoal.Chapter

7

/

Slide

19•

Thetransitionmarksachangeinthegroup’sapproach.•

Thistransitioncrystallizesthegroup’sactivitiesforPhase2.Chapter

7

/

Slide

20•

Itconcludeswithafinalmeetingthatrevealsaburstofactivityandaconcernforhowoutsiderswillevaluatetheproduct.Chapter

7

/

Slide

21ThePunctuatedEquilibriumModelofGroupDevelopmentforTwoGroupsChapter

7

/

Slide

22–

Preparecarefullyforthefirstmeeting.–

Aslongaspeopleareworking,donotlookforradicalprogressduringPhase1.–

Managethemidpointtransitioncarefully.–

BesurethatadequateresourcesareavailabletoactuallyexecutethePhase2plan.–

Resistdeadlinechanges.Chapter

7

/

Slide

23•

Group

structure

referstothecharacteristicsofthestablesocialorganizationofagroup-thewayagroupis“puttogether.”•

Themostbasicstructuralcharacteristicsalongwhichgroupsvaryaresizeandmemberdiversity.Chapter

7

/

Slide

24•

Inpractice,mostworkgroups,includingtaskforcesandcommittees,usuallyhavebetween3and20members.Chapter

7

/

Slide

25•

Membersoflargergroupsconsistentlyreportlesssatisfactionwithgroupmembershipthanthoseinsmallergroups.•

Chancetoworkonanddevelopfriendshipsdecreaseassizeincreases.Chapter

7

/

Slide

26•

Manypeopleareinhibitedaboutparticipatinginlargergroups.•

Inlargegroups,individualmembersidentifylesseasilywiththesuccessandaccomplishmentsofthegroup.Chapter

7

/

Slide

27•

Dolargegroupsperformtasksbetterthansmallgroups?•

Therelationshipbetweengroupsizeandperformancedependsonthetaskthegroupneedstoaccomplishandonhowwedefinegoodperformance.•

Typesoftasks:–

Additivetasks–

Disjunctivetasks–

ConjunctivetasksChapter

7

/

Slide

28•

Tasksinwhichgroupperformanceisdependentonthesumoftheperformanceofindividualgroupmembers.•

Foradditivetasks,thepotentialperformanceofthegroupincreaseswithgroupsize.Chapter

7

/

Slide

29•

Tasksinwhichgroupperformanceisdependentontheperformanceofthebestgroupmember.Chapter

7

/

Slide

30•

Groupperformancedifficultiesstemmingfromtheproblemsofmotivatingandcoordinatinglargergroups.•

Asgroupsperformingtasksgetbigger,theytendtosufferfromprocesslosses.•

Problemsofcommunicationanddecisionmakingincreasewithsize.Chapter

7

/

Slide

31Chapter

7

/

Slide

32Chapter

7

/

Slide

33Chapter

7

/

Slide

34•

Potentialperformanceandprocesslossesincreasewithgroupsizeforadditiveanddisjunctivetasks.•

Actualperformanceincreaseswithsizeuptoapointandthenfallsoff.•

Theaverage

performanceofgroupmembersChapter

7

/

Slide

35•

Thus,uptoapoint,largergroupsmightperformbetterasgroups,buttheirindividualmemberstendtobelessefficient.Chapter

7

/

Slide

36•

Tasksinwhichgroupperformanceislimitedbytheperformanceofthepoorestgroupmember.•

Boththepotentialandactualperformanceofconjunctivetaskswoulddecreaseasgroupsizeincreases.Chapter

7

/

Slide

37•

Foradditiveanddisjunctivetasks,largergroupsmightperformbetteruptoapointbutatincreasingcoststotheefficiencyofindividualmembers.•

Performanceonpurelyconjunctivetasksshoulddecreaseasgroupsizeincreases.Chapter

7

/

Slide

38•

Diversegroupsmighttakelongertodotheirforming,storming,andnorming.Chapter

7

/

Slide

39•

Diversegroupssometimesperformbetterwhenthetaskrequirescognitive,creativity-•

Ingeneral,anynegativeeffectsof“surfacediversity”inage,gender,orraceseemtowearoffovertime.Chapter

7

/

Slide

40•

Socialnormsarecollectiveexpectationsthatmembersofsocialunitshaveregardingthebehaviourofeachother.•

Theyarecodesofconductthatspecifythestandardsagainstwhichweevaluatetheappropriatenessofbehaviour.•

Mostnormativeinfluenceisunconscious;weareonlyawareofitinspecialcircumstances.Chapter

7

/

Slide

41•

Normsdevelopaboutbehavioursthatareatleastmarginallyimportanttotheirsupporters.•

How

donormsdevelop?•

Sharedattitudesamongmembersofagroupformthebasisfornorms.Chapter

7

/

Slide

42•

Whydoindividualscomplywithnorms?–

Thenormcorrespondstoprivatelyheldattitudes.–

Theyoftensavetimeandpreventsocialconfusion.–

Groupshavearangeofrewardsandpunishmentsavailabletoinduceconformitytonorms.Chapter

7

/

Slide

43–

Dressnorms–

PerformancenormsChapter

7

/

Slide

44•

Positionsinagroupthathaveasetofexpectedbehavioursattachedtothem.•

Rolesrepresent“packages”ofnormsthatapplytoparticulargroupmembers.•

Therearetwobasickindsofrolesinorganizations:–

Assignedroles–

EmergentrolesChapter

7

/

Slide

45•

Role

ambiguity

existswhenthegoalsofone’sjoborthemethodsofperformingitareunclear.•

Thereareavarietyofelementsthatcanleadtoroleambiguity:–

Organizationalfactors–

Therolesender–

ThefocalpersonChapter

7

/

Slide

46Chapter

7

/

Slide

47RoleAmbiguity(continued)•

Managerscanreduceroleambiguitybyprovidingclearperformanceexpectationsandperformancefeedback.Chapter

7

/

Slide

48•

Role

conflict

existswhenanindividualisfaced•

Therearefourtypesofroleconflict:–

Intrasenderroleconflict–

Intersenderroleconflict–

Interroleconflict–

Person-roleconflictChapter

7

/

Slide

49IntrasenderRoleConflict•

Asinglerolesenderprovidesincompatibleroleexpectationstoaroleoccupant.•

Thistypeofroleconflictisespeciallylikelytoalsoprovokeambiguity.Chapter

7

/

Slide

50•

Employeeswhostraddletheboundarybetweentheorganizationanditsclientsorcustomersareespeciallylikelytoencounterthisformofconflict.•

Itcanalsostemfromwithintheorganization.Chapter

7

/

Slide

51•

Competingdemandsforone’stimeareafrequentsymptomofinterroleconflict.Chapter

7

/

Slide

52•

Roledemandscallforbehaviourthatisincompatiblewiththepersonalityorskillsofaroleoccupant.•

Manyexamplesof“whistle-blowing”aresignalsofperson-roleconflict.•

Theorganizationhasdemandedsomerolebehaviourthattheoccupantconsidersunethical.Chapter

7

/

Slide

53•

Themostconsistentconsequencesofroleconflictarejobdissatisfaction,stressreactions,loweredorganizationalcommitment,andturnoverintentions.Chapter

7

/

Slide

54RoleConflict(continued)Chapter

7

/

Slide

55•

Status

intherank,socialposition,orprestige•

Itrepresentsthegroup’s

evaluation

ofa•

What

isevaluateddependsonthestatussystem•

Allorganizationshavebothformalandinformalstatussystems.Chapter

7

/

Slide

56FormalStatusSystems•

Representsmanagement’sattempttopubliclyidentifythosepeoplewhohavehigherstatusthanothers.•

Status

symbols

aretangibleindicatorsofstatus•

Formalorganizationstatusisbasedonseniorityinone’sgroupandone’sassignedroleintheorganization–one’sjob.Chapter

7

/

Slide

57FormalStatusSystems(continued)–

Reinforcestheauthorityhierarchyinworkgroupsandintheorganizationasawhole.Chapter

7

/

Slide

58InformalStatusSystems•

Suchsystemsarenotwelladvertised,andtheymightlacktheconspicuoussymbolsandsystematicsupportthatpeopleusuallyaccordtheformalsystem.•

Theycanoperatejustaseffectivelyasformalstatussystems.•

Informalstatusislinkedtojobperformanceaswellasotherfactorssuchasgenderorrace.Chapter

7

/

Slide

59ConsequencesofStatusDifferences•

Mostpeopleliketocommunicatewithothersattheirownstatusorhigher,ratherthanwithpeoplewhoarebelowthem.•

Tendencyforcommunicationtomoveupthestatushierarchy.•

Ifstatusdifferencesarelarge,peoplecanbeinhibitedfromcommunicatingupward.Chapter

7

/

Slide

60•

Becausetheyinhibitthefreeflowofcommunication,manyorganizationsdownplaystatusdifferentiationbydoingawaywithstatussymbols.•

Thegoalistofosteracultureofteamworkandcooperationacrosstheranks.•

Emailseemstohaveleveledstatusbarriers.Chapter

7

/

Slide

61•

Cohesivenessisarelative,ratherthanabsolute,propertyofgroups.Chapter

7

/

Slide

62FactorsInfluencingCohesiveness•

Whatmakessomegroupsmorecohesivethanothers?•

Threat

and

Competition–

Externalthreattothesurvivalofthegroupincreasescohesiveness.–

Honestcompetitionwithanothergroupcanalsopromotecohesiveness.Chapter

7

/

Slide

63FactorsInfluencingCohesiveness(continued)–

Cohesivenesswilldecreaseafterfailure.–

Groupsthataremorediversecanhaveahardertimebecomingcohesive.–

Ifthereisagreementabouthowtoaccomplishatask,itssuccesswilloftenoutweighsurfacedissimilarityindeterminingcohesiveness.Chapter

7

/

Slide

64Competition,Success,andCohesivenessChapter

7

/

Slide

65FactorsInfluencingCohesiveness(continued)•

Size–

Largergroupshaveamoredifficulttimebecomingandstayingcohesive.–

Largegroupshaveamoredifficulttimeagreeingongoalsandmoreproblemscommunicatingandcoordinatingeffortstoachievethosegoals.Chapter

7

/

Slide

66FactorsInfluencingCohesiveness(continued)•

Toughness

of

Initiation–

Groupsthataretoughtogetintotendtobemoreattractivethanthosethatareeasytojoin.Chapter

7

/

Slide

67Chapter

7

/

Slide

68•

More

Participation

in

Group

Activities–

ThereismoreparticipationincohesivegroupsintermsoflowervoluntaryturnoverandChapter

7

/

Slide

69•

More

Conformity–

Highlycohesivegroupsareabletoinducegreaterconformitytogroupnorms.–

Membersofcohesivegroupsareespeciallymotivatedtoengageinactivitiesthatwill

keepthegroupcohesive.–

Canapplypressuretodeviantstogetthemtocomplywithgroupnorms.Chapter

7

/

Slide

70–

Cohesivenesscontributestogroupsuccess.–

Cohesivegroupsaregoodatachievingtheirgoals.–

Groupcohesivenessisrelatedtoperformance.–

Thereisareciprocalrelationshipbetweensuccessandcohesiveness.–

Whyarecohesivegroupseffectiveatgoalaccomplishment?Chapter

7

/

Slide

71•

Inhighlycohesivegroups,theproductivityofindividualgroupmembersissimilartoothermembers;inlesscohesivegroups,thereismorevariationinproductivity.•

Highlycohesivegroupstendtobe

more

orlessproductivethanlesscohesivegroups,dependingonanumberofvariables.•

Cohesivenessismorelikelytopayoffwhenthetaskrequiresmoreinterdependence.Chapter

7

/

Slide

72HypotheticalProductivityCurvesForGroupsVaryinginCohesivenessChapter

7

/

Slide

73intellectualeffortwhenperformingagrouptask.•

Socialloafingisamotivationproblem.•

ThetendencyforsocialloafingisprobablymorepronouncedinindividualisticNorthAmericathaninmorecollectiveandgroup-orientedcultures.•

Socialloafinghastwodifferentforms.Chapter

7

/

Slide

74TheFreeRiderEffect•

Inthefree

rider

effect,peoplelowertheirefforttogetafreerideattheexpenseoftheirfellowgroupmembers.Chapter

7

/

Slide

75•

Inthesucker

effect,peoplelowertheireffortbecauseofthefeelingthatothersarefreeriding.•

Theyaretryingtorestoreequityinthegroup.•

Whataresomewaystocounteractsocialloafing?Chapter

7

/

Slide

76•

Make

sure

that

the

work

is

interesting–

Ifworkisinvolving,intrinsicmotivationshouldcounteractsocialloafing.•

Increase

feelings

of

indispensabilityChapter

7

/

Slide

77•

Increase

performance

feedback–

Increasefeedbackfromtheboss,peers,andcustomers.•

Reward

group

performance–

Membersaremorelikelytomonitorandmaximizetheirownperformanceandthatoftheircolleagueswhenthegroupreceivesrewardsforeffectiveness.Chapter

7

/

Slide

78•

Theterm“team”isgenerallyusedtodescribe“groups”inorganizationalsettings.•

TeamshavebecomeamajorbuildingblockoforganizationsandarenowquitecommoninNorthAmerica.•

Researchhasshownimprovementsinorganizationalperformanceintermsofbothefficiencyandqualityasaresultofteam-basedworkarrangements.Chapter

7

/

Slide

79•

Whenitcomestoteams,collectiveefficacyisimportanttoensurehighperformance.Chapter

7

/

Slide

80•

AccordingtoJ.RichardHackman,aworkgroupiseffectivewhen:–

Itsphysicalorintellectualoutputisacceptabletomanagementandtootherpartsoftheorganizationthatusethisoutput.–

Groupmembers’needsaresatisfiedratherthanfrustratedbythegroup.–

ThegroupexperienceenablesmemberstoChapter

7

/

Slide

81•

Groupeffectivenessoccurswhen:–

Higheffortisdirectedtowardthegroup’stask.–

Whengreatknowledgeandskillaredirectedtowardthetask.–

Whenthegroupadoptssensiblestrategiesforaccomplishingitsgoals.•

Onewaytodesigngroupstobemoreeffectiveistomakethemself-managedworkteams.Chapter

7

/

Slide

82Self-ManagedWorkTeams(SMWTs)•

Criticalsuccessfactorsofself-managedteamsinclude:–

Thenatureofthetask.–

Thecompositionofthegroup.–

Varioussupportmechanisms.Chapter

7

/

Slide

83•

Thetasksshouldhavethequalitiesofenrichedjobs.Chapter

7

/

Slide

84•

Stability–

Groupmembershipshouldbefairlystable.•

Size•

Expertise–

Groupmembersshouldhaveahighlevelofexpertiseaboutthetaskathandaswellassocialskills.Chapter

7

/

Slide

85•

Diversity–

Groupmembersshouldbesimilarenoughtoworkwelltogetheranddiverseenoughtobringavarietyofperspectivesandskillstothetaskathand.–

Onewayofmaintainingappropriategroupcompositionistoletthegroupchooseitsownmembers.Chapter

7

/

Slide

86•

Reportsofproblemswithteamscanusuallybetracedbacktoinadequatesupport.Chapter

7

/

Slide

87•

Training•

Rewards–

Rewardsshouldbetiedtoteamaccomplishmentratherthantoindividualaccomplishmentwhilestillprovidingteammemberswithsomeindividualperformancefeedback.Chapter

7

/

Slide

88•

Management–

Managementshouldmediaterelations

betweenteams,dealwithunionconcerns,andcoachteamstobeindependent.Chapter

7

/

Slide

89Chapter

7

/

Slide

90ResearchonWorkGroupEffectiveness•

Taskcharacteristicsarerelatedtomostmeasuresofgroupeffectiveness.•

Teamsperceivedastoolargefortheirtasksratedaslesseffectivethanteamsperceivedasanappropriatesizeortoosmall.•

Managerialsupportrelatedtomanymeasuresofeffectivenessandisoneofthebestpredictorsofgroupperformance.Chapter

7

/

Slide

91ResearchonWorkGroupEffectiveness(continued)Chapter

7

/

Slide

92•

Workgroupsthatbringpeoplewithdifferentfunctionalspecialtiestogethertobetterinvent,design,ordeliveraproductorservice.•

Bestknownfortheirsuccessinproductdevelopment.Chapter

7

/

Slide

93•

Thegeneralgoalsofusingcross-functionalteamsincludesomecombinationofinnovation,speed,andqualitythatcomefromearlycoordinationamongthevariousspecialties.•

Cross-functionalteamsgetallofthespecialtiesworkingtogetherfromdayone.Chapter

7

/

Slide

94–

Allrelevantspecialtiesarenecessaryandmustbeincluded.•

Superordinate

goals–

Attractiveoutcomesthatcanonlybeachievedbycollaboration;theymustoverridefunctionalobjectives.Chapter

7

/

Slide

95•

Physical

proximity–

Teammembershavetobelocatedclosetoeachothertofacilitateinformalcontact.•

Autonomy–

Cross-functionalteamsneedsomeautonomyfromthelargerorganization.–

Functionalspecialistsneedsomeauthoritytocommittheirfunctiontoprojectdecisions.Chapter

7

/

Slide

96–

Somebasicdecisionproceduresmustbelaiddowntopreventanarchy.•

Leadership–

Cross-functionalteamleadersneedespeciallystrongpeopleskillsinadditiontotaskexpertise.Chapter

7

/

Slide

97•

Teammembersneedtosharementalmodels.•

Shared

mental

models

meanthatteammembersshareidenticalinformationabouthowtheyshouldinteractandwhattheirtaskis.•

Theyareaparticularchallengetoinstillincross-functionalteams.Chapter

7

/

Slide

98Chapter

7

/

Slide

99VirtualTeams(continued)•

Alongwiththerelianceoncomputerandelectronictechnology,theprimaryfeatur