经原antitrust pincipleecon经济学双原理

It’ssellerswhocompeteagainstothernotbuyerswhocompeteagainst‐ArmenFoundingAaron(Sep.21,1901–Sep.11,

W.Liebeler:ForfourdayseachweekEdLeviwoulddevelopthelawandwouldusethetradi8onaltechniquesoflegalreasoningtorelatethecasestoeachotherandcreateasynthesisofthekindallthelawyersherearefamiliarwithtoex inandra8onalizethecases.ForfourdaysEdwoulddothis,andforonedayeachweek,AaronDirectorwould lusthateverythingthatLevihadtoldustheprecedingfourdayswasnonsense.Heusedeconomic ysistoshowusthatthelegal ysissimplywouldnotstandup.…Welearnedthattherewasasystemof ysis[pricetheory]that(1)wasquiterelevanttothestuffwetalkedaboutinlawschooland(2)wasmuchmorepowerfulthananythingthatthelawprofessors,thananythingEdLevihadto lus.FoundingShermanActSecPon1:Everycontract,combinaPonintheformoftrustorotherwise,orconspiracy,inrestraintoftradeorcommerce(限制贸易)amongtheseveralStates,orwithforeignnaPons,isdeclaredtobeillegal.SecPon2:Every whoshallmonopolize,ora3empttomonopolize( ),orcombineorconspirewithanyother s,tomonopolizeanypartofthetradeorcommerceamongtheseveralStates,orwithforeignnaPons,shallbedeemedguiltyofafelony….第1部分：每个合同，以或其他形易的，被宣布为。 法案（ShermanAct, 包罗性行为（inclusivepracPce）：专指竞争者们为排他性行为（exclusivepracPce）：专指某个竞争 消费者保护（consumerprotecPon）：包括价格歧 事实：铝公司，铝锭的生产企业，是近30年中国家唯一生产铝制品的企业。政府为其行为而意图拆分它。（日产同时每磅价格从5降到0.22。）问题：有市场控制权的企业，是否本身TheA3emptstoUnitedStatesvs.AluminumCo.ofAmerica Ruling(LearnedHand): True,itsPmulateddemandandopenednewusesforthemetal,butnotwithoutmakingsurethatitcouldsupplywhatithadevoked… Itwasnotinevitablethatitshouldalwaysa ipateincreasesinthedemandforingotandbepreparedtosupplythem.Nothingcompelledittokeepdoublingandredoublingitscapacitybeforeothersenteredthefield. ItinsiststhatitneverexcludedcompePtors;butwecanthinkofnomoreeffecPveexclusionthanprogressivelytoembraceeachnewopportunityasitopened,andtofaceeveryerwithnewcapacityalready （汉德(Learned 新精神来开展业务，从而以公平的取得成功，所以应该得谁也没有它在还没有其他人进入这个行业前，就不断把规 TheA3emptstoThe anIndexItisaneconomicconceptwidelyappliedincompeSSonlawandtechnologymanagement.Itisdefinedasthesumofthesquaresofthemarketsharesofthe50largestfirms(orsummedoverallthefirmsiftherearefewerthan50)withintheindustry,wherethemarketsharesareexpressedasfracPons. NetworkEffect&PathAnetworkeffectistheeffectwherethevalueofaproductorserviceisdependentonthenumberofothersusingit.(wiki) ephone;OperaPngSystem;gasstaPon;currency;standardformat,etc.ItisveryunlikelythatthewrongformatwouldbechosenifboththesuperiorandinferiorareavailableatthesamePme.NetworkEffect&PathPayoffstoadoptersof0OpSonOpSon47IsitanexampleofmarketNo.Thetablesimplydoesnotallowadopterstoa ipateorinfluencethee.Ifatechnologyisowned,theownermayassureadoptersandbribeearlyadoptersthroughlowpricesorothercompensaPon.Toassertmarketfailure,itrequiresthatweassumeawayconsumerandtrademagazines,tradeassociaPons,guarantees,adverPsing,brandnamesandsoPredatoryStandardOilCo.ofNewv.UnitedStates,221U.S.Holding:TheStandardconspiredtorestrainthetradeandcommerceinpetroleum,andtomonopolizethecommerceinpetroleum,inviolaPonoftheShermanAct,andwassplitinto34smallerPredatoryMatsushitav.ZenithRadioFacts:Zenith(P)allegedthat21Japanesecompanieshadconspiredfornearly21yearstoselltheirproductsatarPficiallylowpricesintheUnitedStates,inanefforttodriveU.S.companiesoutofthemarket.Issue:Musta inPffshowdirectevidenceofconcertedacPonanda usiblemoPvetoengageinpredatorypricing?PredatoryMatsushitav.ZenithRadioRuling:TheCourtofAppealsis toconsiderwhetherthereisotherevidence…thatpePPonersconspiredtopricepredatorilyfortwodecadesdespitetheabsenceofanyapparentmoPvetodoso.…Thesuccessofsuchschemes(predatorypricing)isinherentlydependsonmaintainingmonopolypowerforlongenoughbothtorecoupthepredator'slossesandtoharvestsomeaddiPonalgain.Forthisreason,thereisaconsensusamongcommentatorsthatpredatorypricingschemesarerarelytried,andevenmorerarelysuccessful.Matsushitav.ZenithRadio事实：Zenith(P)声称21家 Matsushitav.ZenithRadio MediclCo.v.JohnPark&Son事实：Dr. MedicalCo.v.JohnPark&Son（大多数）：不允许。限制间的密谋，了反法。异议（霍姆斯(OliverWendellHolmes)）：竞争的含义被严重清的观念扩展到新的领域。没有法律和判例支持这样。 否决LeeginCrea8veLeatherProducts,Inc.,v.PSKS,Inc.,DecidedJune28,2007.RetailPriceMaintenanceBackground:The1968decisioninAlbrechtv.HeraldCo.heldthatwholesalerscouldnotrequirefranchiseesandretailersoftheirproductstosellitemsatacertainprice.AdverPsementsregardingsales,therefore,alwaysincludedthelanguage"availableatparPcipaPngretailersFact:Thecasebeforethecourtin1997involvedagasolinewholesalerandChicagoservicestaPon.StateOilCo.aoemptedto thegasolinestaPonowner,BarkatKhan,tosellStateOil'sproductatcertainprices.Khanresistedandfiledsuit,claimingaviolaPonof‐trustlaw.RetailPriceMaintenanceAppellateCourtbyPosnerYetdespiteallitsinfirmiSes,itsincreasinglywobbly,moth-‐eatenfoundaSons,Albrechthasnotbeenexpresslyoverruled.AndtheSupremeCourthastoldthelowerfederalcourts,inincreasinglyemphaPc,evenstrident,terms,nottoa ipateanoverrulingofadecisionbytheCourt;wearetoleavetheoverrulingtotheCourtitself.Albrechtwasunsoundwhendecided,andisinconsistentwithlaterdecisionsbytheSupremeCourt.Itshouldbeoverruled.Someday,weexpect,itwillRetailPriceMaintenanceSupremeCourtbyO’ConnorDespitewhatChiefJudgePosneraptlydescribedAlbrecht’s“infirmiSes,[and]itsincreasinglywobbly,moth-‐eatenfoundaSons,”thereremainsthequesPonwhetherAlbrechtdeservesconSnuingrespect.TheCourtofAppealswascorrectinapplyingthatprincipledespitedisagreementwithAlbrecht,foritisthisCourt’sprerogaPve( )alonetooverruleoneofitsprecedents.Albrechtisoverturned.VerPcalpricefixingwillbeexaminedunderruleofreason. 没有“”？反者会说：“即 戴维德(A.Director) 伊斯特布鲁克(F.Easterbrook：“ IBM与打孔卡（打孔卡的质量；一种价格 TyingTying 年月日，盖茨 ForMicrosopRichardS thendeanofMITSloan

ForFranklinFisher,Department, 要理论专家是大名鼎鼎的Robert（A.Director）的入室济而又当过官，是个奇才。他写过一本经典之作，所有的反法例。在这次世纪反大案中，控方在之外的主要公三十年前史德拉（G.SPgler）对我说，人的是可以的。是（张五常《果——为微软说几句话》 日，初 分拆微 ； 日，上 批准和解方案1994年SunMicrosystems加入，指责微软未能充分披露WindowsNT的接口信息； 1994年SunMicrosystemsWindowsNT • •••。Windows95/98Modem(Hayes',memory(aQuarterdeckproduct,(Corel‘sSCSI,drivecompression;fax;diskdefragmenters,etc.…UpgradefromWindows3.0toWindows98MorethanTyingOn17September2007,MicrosoplosttheirappealagainsttheEuropeanCommission'scase.The€497million(US$796million)finewasupheld,On27February2008,theEUfinedMicrosopanaddiPonal€899million(US$1.44billion)forfailuretocomplywiththeMarch2004anPtrustdecision.Thisrepresentedthelargestpenaltyeverimposedin50yearsofEUcompePPon unPl2009,whentheEuropeanCommissionfinedIn €1.06billion($1.45billion)for‐compePPvebehaviour.TyingASSISTANTATTORNEYGENERALFORANTITRUST,THOMASO.BARNETT,ISSUESSTATEMENTONEUROPEAN DECISION(9/17/2007)Weare,however,concernedthatthestandardappliedtounila conductbytheCFI,ratherthanhel consumers,mayhavetheunfortunateconsequenceofharmingconsumersbychillinginnovaPonanddiscouragingcompePPon."IntheUnitedStates,theanPtrustlawsareen dtoprotectconsumersbyprotecPngcompePPon,notcompePtors.Intheabsenceofdemonstrableconsumerharm,allcompanies,includingdominantfirms,areencouragedtocompetevigorously.U.S.courtsrecognizethepotenPalbenefitstoconsumerswhena ,includinga ,makesunila lbusinessdecisions,forexampletoaddfeaturestoitspopularproductsorlicenseitsin propertytorivals,ortorefusetodoso.…differenceinprice…OnMarch5,2013,TheEuropeanUnion'scompePPonwatchdoghitMicrosopCorp.MSFT+0.18%witha€561million($732.2million)fineforbreakingitspromisetooffermillionsofusersofitsWindowsoperaPngsystemachoiceofrivalWebbrowsers.(March6,WSJ)CommentsCommentsonAnPtrustPosner,RichardA.rustLaw.Chicago:ofChicagoPress,2001,p34):“TheframersoftheShermanActwereconcernedwiththe“trust”problem,butwhattheyconceivedthatproblemtobeisobscure,andindeedcontradictory.Lowprices,ordiscriminatorypricing, thatareharmfultosmall-‐businesscompePtors?HighpricesharmfultoEliminaPngdeadweightlossbydiscriminaPngharmfultoconsumers?ProtecPngcompePtorsfromlowpricesandconsumersfromhighpricesarepaPbleobjecPves.CommentsonAnPtrustRonaldCoasesaidhehadgooenPredof‐trustbecausewhenthepriceswentupthejudgessaiditwasmonopoly,whenthepriceswentdowntheysaiditwaspredatorypricing,andwhentheystayedthesametheysaiditwastacitcollusion.—Source:WilliamLandes,“TheFireofTruth:ARemembranceofLawandEconatChicago”,JLECommentsonAnPtrustCompePPonisbyitsnatureadynamicprocesswhoseessenPalcharacterisPcsareassumedawaybytheassumpPonsunderlying Itappearstobegenerallyheldthatthe‐calledtheoryof"perfectcompePPon"providestheappropriatemodelforjudgingtheeffecPvenessofcompePPoninreallifeandthat,totheextentthatrealcompePPondiffersfromthatmodel,itisundesirableF.A.Hayek,MeaningofCompePPon,"inIndividualismandEconomicOrder,1948

evenharmful...WhatthetheoryofperfectcompePPondiscusseshaslioleclaimtobecalled"compePPon"atall,anditsconclusionsareoflioleuseasguidesto CommentsonAnPtrustCommentsonAnPtrustFriedman:MyownviewsabouttheanPtrustlawshavechangedgreatlyoverPme.WhenIstartedinthisbusiness,asabelieverincompePPon,IwasagreatsupporterofanPtrustlaws;Ithoughtenforcingthemwasoneofthefewdesirablethingsthatthe ernmentcoulddotopromotemorecompePPon.ButasIwatchedwhatactuallyhappened,Isawthat,insteadofpromoPngcompePPon,anPtrustlawstendedtodoexactlytheopposite,becausetheytended,likesomany ernmentacPviPes,tobetakenoverbythepeopletheyweresupposedtoregulateandcontrol.AndsooverPmeIhavegraduallycometotheconclusionthatanPtrustlawsdofarmoreharmthangoodandthatwewouldbebeoeroffifwedidn’thavethematall,ifwecouldgetridofthem.Butwedohavethem.CommentsonAnPtrust(cont.)Underthecircumstances,giventhatwedohaveanPtrustlaws,isitreallyintheself-‐interestofSiliconValleytosettheernmentonMicrosop?Yourindustry,thecomputerindustry,movessomuchmorerapidlythanthelegalprocess,thatbythePmethissuitisover,whoknowswhattheshapeoftheindustrywillbe.Nevermindthefactthatthehumanenergyandthemoneythatwillbespentinhiringmyfelloweconomists,aswellasinotherways,wouldbemuchmoreproducPvelyemployedinimprovingyourproducts.It’sawaste!Butbeyondthat,youwillruethewhenyoucalledinthe ernment.Fromnowonthecomputerindustry,whichhasbeenveryfortunateinthatithasbeen ernmentintrusion,willexperienceaconPnuousincreasein ernmentregulaPon.