英汉互译建筑的组成部分

外文资料：ComponentsofABuildingandTallBuildingsMaterialsandstructuralformsarecombinedtomakeupthevariouspartsofabuilding,includingtheload-carryingframe,skin,floors,andpartitions.Thebuildingalsohasmechanicalandelectricalsystems,suchaselevators,heatingandcoolingsystems,andlightingsystems.Thesuperstructureisthatpartofabuildingaboveground,andthesubstructureandfoundationisthatpartofabuildingbelowground.Theskyscraperowesitsexistencetotwodevelopmentsofthe19thcentury:steelskeletonconstructionandthepassengerelevator.SteelasaconstructionmaterialdatesfromtheintroductionoftheBessemerconverterin1885.GustaveEiffel(1832-1932)introducedsteelconstructioninFrance.HisdesignsfortheGaleriedesMachinesandtheTowerfortheParisExpositionof1889expressedthelightnessofthesteelframework.TheEiffelTower,984feet(300meters)high,wasthetalleststructurebuiltbymanandwasnotsurpasseduntil40yearslaterbyaseriesofAmericanskyscrapers.ElishaOtisinstalledthefirstelevatorinadepartmentstoreinNewYorkin1857.In1889,EiffelinstalledthefirstelevatorsonagrandscaleintheEiffelTower,whosehydraulicelevatorscouldtransport2,350passengerstothesummiteveryhour.Load-CarryingFrame.Untilthelate19thcentury,theexteriorwallsofabuildingwereusedasbearingwallstosupportthefloors.Thisconstructionisessentiallyapostandlinteltype,anditisstillusedinframeconstructionforhouses.Bearing-wallconstructionlimitedtheheightofbuildingbecauseoftheenormouswallthicknessrequired；forinstance,the16-storyMonadnockBuildingbuiltinthe1880’sinChicagohadwalls5feet(1.5meters)thickatthelowerfloors.In1883,WilliamLeBaronJenney(1832-1907)supportedfloorsoncast-ironcolumnstoformacage-likeconstruction.Skeletonconstruction,consistingofsteelbeamsandcolumns,wasfirstusedin1889.Asaconsequenceofskeletonconstruction,theenclosingwallsbecomea“curtainwall”ratherthanservingasupportingfunction.Masonrywasthecurtainwallmaterialuntilthe1930’s,whenlightmetalandglasscurtainwallswereused.Aftertheintroductionofbuildingscontinuedtoincreaserapidly.AlltallbuildingswerebuiltwithaskeletonofsteeluntilWorldWarⅡ.Afterthewar,theshortageofsteelandtheimprovedqualityofconcreteledtotallbuildingbeingbuiltofreinforcedconcrete.MarinaTower(1962)inChicagoisthetallestconcretebuildingintheUnitedStates；itsheight—588feet(179meters)—isexceededbythe650-foot(198-meter)PostOfficeTowerinLondonandbyothertowers.Achangeinattitudeaboutskyscraperconstructionhasbroughtareturntotheuseofthebearingwall.InNewYorkCity,theColumbiaBroadcastingSystemBuilding,designedbyEeroSaarinenin1962,hasaperimeterwallconsistingof5-foot(1.5meter)wideconcretecolumnsspaced10feet(3meters)fromcolumncentertocenter.Thisperimeterwall,ineffect,constitutesabearingwall.Onereasonforthistrendisthatstiffnessagainsttheactionofwindcanbeeconomicallyobtainedbyusingthewallsofthebuildingasatube；theWorldTradeCenterbuildingisanotherexampleofthistubeapproach.Incontrast,rigidframesorverticaltrussesareusuallyprovidedtogivelateralstability.Skin.Theskinofabuildingconsistsofbothtransparentelements(windows)andopaqueelements(walls).Windowsaretraditionallyglass,althoughplasticsarebeingused,especiallyinschoolswherebreakagecreatesamaintenanceproblem.Thewallelements,whichareusedtocoverthestructureandaresupportedbyit,arebuiltofavarietyofmaterials:brick,precastconcrete,stone,opaqueglass,plastics,steel,andaluminum.Woodisusedmainlyinhouseconstruction；itisnotgenerallyusedforcommercial,industrial,orpublicbuildingbecauseofthefirehazard.Floors.Theconstructionofthefloorsinabuildingdependsonthebasicstructuralframethatisused.Insteelskeletonconstruction,floorsareeitherslabsofconcreterestingonsteelbeamsoradeckconsistingofcorrugatedsteelwithaconcretetopping.Inconcreteconstruction,thefloorsareeitherslabsofconcreteonconcretebeamsoraseriesofcloselyspacedconcretebeams(ribs)intwodirectionstoppedwithathinconcreteslab,givingtheappearanceofawaffleonitsunderside.Thekindoffloorthatisuseddependsonthespanbetweensupportingcolumnsorwallsandthefunctionofthespace.Inanapartmentbuilding,forinstance,wherewallsandcolumnsarespacedat12to18feet(3.7to5.5meters),themostpopularconstructionisasolidconcreteslabwithnobeams.Theundersideoftheslabservesastheceilingforthespacebelowit.Corrugatedsteeldecksareoftenusedinofficebuildingsbecausethecorrugations,whenenclosedbyanothersheetofmetal,formductsfortelephoneandelectricallines.MechanicalandElectricalSystems.Amodernbuildingnotonlycontainsthespaceforwhichitisintended(office,classroom,apartment)butalsocontainsancillaryspaceformechanicalandelectricalsystemsthathelptoprovideacomfortableenvironment.Theseancillaryspacesinaskyscraperofficebuildingmayconstitute25%ofthetotalbuildingarea.Theimportanceofheating,ventilating,electrical,andplumbingsystemsinanofficebuildingisshownbythefactthat40%oftheconstructionbudgetisallocatedtothem.Becauseoftheincreaseduseofsealedbuildingwithwindowsthatcannotbeopened,elaboratemechanicalsystemsareprovidedforventilationandairconditioning.Ductsandpipescarryfreshairfromcentralfanroomsandairconditioningmachinery.Theceiling,whichissuspendedbelowtheupperfloorconstruction,concealstheductworkandcontainsthelightingunits.Electricalwiringforpowerandfortelephonecommunicationmayalsobelocatedinthisceilingspaceormaybeburiedinthefloorconstructioninpipesorconduits.Therehavebeenattemptstoincorporatethemechanicalandelectricalsystemsintothearchitectureofbuildingbyfranklyexpressingthem；forexample,theAmericanRepublicInsuranceCompanyBuilding(1965)inDesMoines,Iowa,exposesboththeductsandthefloorstructureinanorganizedandelegantpatternanddispenseswiththesuspendedceiling.Thistypeofapproachmakesitpossibletoreducethecostofthebuildingandpermitsinnovations,suchasinthespanofthestructure.SoilsandFoundations.Allbuildingaresupportedontheground,andthereforethenatureofthesoilbecomesanextremelyimportantconsiderationinthedesignofanybuilding.Thedesignofafoundationdependsonmanysoilfactors,suchastypeofsoil,soilstratification,thicknessofsoillaversandtheircompaction,andgroundwaterconditions.Soilsrarelyhaveasinglecomposition；theygenerallyaremixturesinlayersofvaryingthickness.Forevaluation,soilsaregradedaccordingtoparticlesize,whichincreasesfromsilttoclaytosandtograveltorock.Ingeneral,thelargerparticlesoilswillsupportheavierloadsthanthesmallerones.Thehardestrockcansupportloadsupto100tonspersquarefoot(976.5metrictons/sqmeter),butthesoftestsiltcansupportaloadofonly0.25tonpersquarefoot(2.44metrictons/sqmeter).Allsoilsbeneaththesurfaceareinastateofcompaction；thatis,theyareunderapressurethatisequaltotheweightofthesoilcolumnaboveit.Manysoils(exceptformostsandsandgavels)exhibitelasticproperties—theydeformwhencompressedunderloadandreboundwhentheloadisremoved.Theelasticityofsoilsisoftentime-dependent,thatis,deformationsofthesoiloccuroveralengthoftimewhichmayvaryfromminutestoyearsafteraloadisimposed.Overaperiodoftime,abuildingmaysettleifitimposesaloadonthesoilgreaterthanthenaturalcompactionweightofthesoil.Conversely,abuildingmayheaveifitimposesloadsonthesoilsmallerthanthenaturalcompactionweight.Thesoilmayalsoflowundertheweightofabuilding；thatis,ittendstobesqueezedout.Duetoboththecompactionandfloweffects,buildingstendsettle.Unevensettlements,exemplifiedbytheleaningtowersinPisaandBologna,canhavedamagingeffects—thebuildingmaylean,wallsandpartitionsmaycrack,windowsanddoorsmaybecomeinoperative,and,intheextreme,abuildingmaycollapse.Uniformsettlementsarenotsoserious,althoughextremeconditions,suchasthoseinMexicoCity,canhaveseriousconsequences.Overthepast100years,achangeinthegroundwaterleveltherehascausedsomebuildingstosettlemorethan10feet(3meters).Becausesuchmovementscanoccurduringandafterconstruction,carefulanalysisofthebehaviorofsoilsunderabuildingisvital.Thegreatvariabilityofsoilshasledtoavarietyofsolutionstothefoundationproblem.Wherefirmsoilexistsclosetothesurface,thesimplestsolutionistorestcolumnsonasmallslabofconcrete(spreadfooting).Wherethesoilissofter,itisnecessarytospreadthecolumnloadoveragreaterarea；inthiscase,acontinuousslabofconcrete(raftormat)underthewholebuildingisused.Incaseswherethesoilnearthesurfaceisunabletosupporttheweightofthebuilding,pilesofwood,steel,orconcretearedrivendowntofirmsoil.Theconstructionofabuildingproceedsnaturallyfromthefoundationuptothesuperstructure.Thedesignprocess,however,proceedsfromtheroofdowntothefoundation(inthedirectionofgravity).Inthepast,thefoundationwasnotsubjecttosystematicinvestigation.Ascientificapproachtothedesignoffoundationshasbeendevelopedinthe20thcentury.KarlTerzaghioftheUnitedStatespioneeredstudiesthatmadeitpossibletomakeaccuratepredictionsofthebehavioroffoundations,usingthescienceofsoilmechanicscoupledwithexplorationandtestingprocedures.Foundationfailuresofthepast,suchastheclassicalexampleoftheleaningtowerinPisa,havebecomealmostnonexistent.Foundationsstillareahiddenbutcostlypartofmanybuildings.Althoughtherehavebeenmanyadvancementsinbuildingconstructiontechnologyingeneral,spectacularachievementshavebeenmadeinthedesignandconstructionofultrahigh-risebuildings.则The谨earl君yde傅velo诚pmen咱tof乌hig帐h-ri桶seb遣uild泛ings脂beg户anw虚ith能stru嗓ctur饶als乖teel葡fra告ming庄.Re递info俱rced旁con咐cret容ean定dst晕ress厨ed-s奶kin捐tube盈sys资tems拔hav训esi括nce艰been裤eco论nomi静call罚yan学dco愧mpet债itiv阅ely撇used控in条anu倘mber症of软stru佳ctur游esf锯orb啊oth但resi转dent象ial悦and氧comm狐erci浑alp谁urpo染ses.科The豪hig举h-ri添seb默uild补ings哀ran槐ging盖fro秘m50死to棒110璃stor毅ies供that习are狂bei锈ngb轨uilt药all烤ove扔rth卸eUn决ited予Sta史tes望are撑the野resu敲lto差fin躬nova阵tion渗san株dde子velo膀pmen墨tof申new蛋str瓜uctu嚼ral持syst拉ems.荷Grea荡ter模heig宣hte问ntai研lsi贱ncre左ased顽col退umn使and俯beam纯siz楚est芒oma骗keb失uild抓ings虏mor楼eri赞gid效sot榨hat智unde柴rwi植ndl师oad帮they思wil漆lno眼tsw丑ayb橡eyon朽dan卧acc旋epta喇ble蔽limi汽t.E不xces识sive暑lat灯eral历swa报yma贯yca雨use您seri哨ous冤recu储rrin虑gda脏mage节to帐part裳itio军ns,铲ceil标ings点,an卸dot棋her碎arch惯itec壶tura虑lde计tail涛s.I框nad猪diti疮on,障exce筋ssiv懒esw瘦aym劳ayc绘ause议dis施comf勾ort吼tot脑heo抢ccup垄ants勒of忘the浪buil千ding敬bec蝇ause鸦of现thei艇rpe立rcep勺tion克of扎such液mot列ion.婆Str钟uctu顾ral些syst御ems弓ofr胞einf罩orce沙dco旧ncre比te,谦asw悄ell历ass冻teel盐,ta侮kef么ull腹adva保ntag犁eof奋the穿inh旷eren瘦t屋pote派ntia宝lst检iffn邻ess夕oft低het法otal趁bui费ldin抬gan禽dth再eref杆ore辰don兴otr嚼equi干rea陡ddit云iona蒜lst也iffe骗ning丽to喊limi疗tth呈esw沙ay.阳Ina畅ste小els厨truc堪ture轰,fo们rex蓄ampl据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