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ColonizingtheAmericasviatheNorthwestIthaslongbeenacceptedthattheAmericaswerecolonizedbyamigrationofpeoplesfromAsia,slowlytravelingacrossalandbridgecalledBeringia(nowtheBeringStraitbetweennortheasternAsiaandAlaska)duringthelastIceAge.Thefirstwatercrafttheoryaboutthemigrationwasthataround11,000-12,000yearsagotherewasanice-corridorstretchingfromeasternBeringiatotheareasofNorthAmericasouthofthegreatnorthernglaciers.Itwasthemidcontinentalcorridorbetweentwomassiveicesheets-theLaurentidetothewest-thatenabledthesouthwardmigration.Butbeliefinthisice-corridorbegantocrumblewhenpaleoecologistGlenMacDonalddemonstratedthatsomeofthemostimportantradiocarbondatesusedtosupporttheexistenceofanice-corridorwereincorrect.Hepersuasivelyarguedthatsuchanice-corridordidnotexistuntilmuchlater,whenthecontinentalicebeganitsfinalretreat.Supportisgrowingforthealternativetheorythatpeopleusingwatercraft,possiblyskinboats,movedsouthwardfromBeringiaalongtheGulfofAlaskaandthensouthwardalongtheNorthwestCoastofNorthAmericapossiblyasearlyas16,000yearsago.ThisroutewouldhaveenabledhumanstoentersouthernareasoftheAmericanspriortothemeltingofthecontinentalglaciers.Untiltheearly1970s,mostarchaeologistsdidnotconsiderthecoastapossiblemigrationrouteintotheAmericansbecausegeologistsoriginallybelievedthatduringthelastIceAgetheentireNorthwestCoastwascoveredbyglacialice.IthadbeenassumedthattheiceextendedwestwardfromtheAlaskan/Canadianmountainstotheveryedgeofthecontinentalshelf,theflat,submergedpartofthecontinentthatextendintotheocean.ThiswouldhavecreatedabarrieroficeextendingfromtheAlaskaPeninsula,throughtheGulfofAlaskaandsouthwardalongtheNorthwestCoastofNorthAmericatowhatistodaythestateofWashington.ThemostinfluentialproponentofthecoastalmigrationroutehasbeenCanadianarchaeologistKnutFladmark.Hetheorizedthatwiththeuseofwatercraft,peoplegraduallycolonizedunglaciatedrefugesandareasalongthecontinentalshelfexposedbythelowersealevel.Fladmark'shypothesisreceivedadditionalsupportfromthefactthatthegreatestdiversityinNativeAmericanlanguagesoccursalongthewestcoastoftheAmericans,suggestingthatthisregionhasbeensettledthelongest.Morerecentgeologicstudieseddeglaciationandtheexistenceofice-areasthroughoutmajorcoastalareasofBritishColumbia,Canada,by13,000yearsago.ResearchnowindicatesthatsizableareasofsoutheasternAlaskaalongtheinnercontinentalshelfwerenotcoveredbyicetowardtheendofthelastIceAge.Onestudysuggeststhatexceptfora250-coastalareabetweensouthwesternBritishColumbiaandWashingtonState,theNorthwestCoastofNorthAmericawaslargelyoficebyapproximay16,000yearsago.Vastareasalongthecoastmayhavebeendeglaciatedbeginningaround16,000yearsago,possiblyprovidingacoastalcorridorforthemovementofnts,animals,andhumanssometimebetween13,000and14,000yearsago.Thecoastalhypothesishasgainedincreasingsupportinrecentyearsbecausetheremainsoflargelandanimals,suchascaribouandbrownbears,havebeenfoundinsoutheasternAlaskadatingbetween10,000and12,500yearsago.Thisisthetimeperiodinwhichmostscientistsformerlybelievedtheareatobeinhospitableforhumans.Ithasbeensuggestedthatiftheenvironmentwerecapableofsupportingbreedingpopulationsofbears,therewouldhavebeenenoughfoodresourcestosupporthumans.FladmarkandothersbelievethatthefirsthumancolonizationofAmericaoccurredbyboatalongtheNorthwestCoastduringtheverylateIceAge,possiblyasearlyas14,000yearsago.Themostrecentgeologicevidenceindicatesthatitmayhavebeenpossibleforpeopletocolonizeice-regionsalongthecontinentalshelfthatwerestillexposedbythelowersealevelbetween13,000and14,000ago.Thecoastalhypothesissuggestsaneconomybasedonmarinemlhunting,saltwaterfishinggathering,andtheuseofwatercraft.Becauseofthebarrieroficetotheeast,thePacificOceantothewest,andpopulatedareastothenorth,theremayhavebeenagreaterimpetusforpeopletomoveinasoutherlydirection.Paragraph1:IthaslongbeenacceptedthattheAmericaswerecolonizedbyamigrationofpeoplesfromAsia,slowlytravelingacrossalandbridgecalledBeringia(nowtheBeringStraitbetweennortheasternAsiaandAlaska)duringthelastIceAge.Thefirstwatercrafttheoryaboutthemigrationwasthataround11,000-12,000yearsagotherewasanice-corridorstretchingfromeasternBeringiatotheareasofNorthAmericasouthofthegreatnorthernglaciers.Itwasthemidcontinentalcorridorbetweentwomassiveicesheets-theLaurentidetothewest-thatenabledthesouthwardmigration.Butbeliefinthisice-corridorbegantocrumblewhenpaleoecologistGlenMacDonalddemonstratedthatsomeofthemostimportantradiocarbondatesusedtosupporttheexistenceofanice-corridorwereincorrect.Hepersuasivelyarguedthatsuchanice-corridordidnotexistuntilmuchlater,whenthecontinentalicebeganitsfinalretreat.Accordingtoparagraph1,thetheorythatpeoplefirstmigratedtotheAmericansbywayofanice-corridorwasseriouslycalledintoquestionbypaleoecologistGlenMacDonald'sargumentthattheoriginalmigrationoccurredmuchlaterthanpreviouslybeenthedemonstrationthatcertainpreviouslyacceptedradiocarbondateswereevidencethatthecontinentalicebeganitsfinalretreatmuchlaterthanhadpreviouslybeenresearchshowingthattheice-corridorwasnotaslonglastingashadbeenwidelyThewordpersuasivelyinthepassageisclosestinmeaningParagraph2:Supportisgrowingforthealternativetheorythatpeopleusingwatercraft,possiblyskinboats,movedsouthwardfromBeringiaalongtheGulfofAlaskaandthensouthwardalongtheNorthwestCoastofNorthAmericapossiblyasearlyas16,000yearsago.ThisroutewouldhaveenabledhumanstoentersouthernareasoftheAmericanspriortothemeltingofthecontinentalglaciers.Untiltheearly1970s,mostarchaeologistsdidnotconsiderthecoastapossiblemigrationrouteintotheAmericansbecausegeologistsoriginallybelievedthatduringthelastIceAgetheentireNorthwestCoastwascoveredbyglacialice.IthadbeenassumedthattheiceextendedwestwardfromtheAlaskan/Canadianmountainstotheveryedgeofthecontinentalshelf,theflat,submergedpartofthecontinentthatextendintotheocean.ThiswouldhavecreatedabarrieroficeextendingfromtheAlaskaPeninsula,throughtheGulfofAlaskaandsouthwardalongtheNorthwestCoastofNorthAmericatowhatistodaythestateofWashington.Paragraph2beginsbypresentingatheoryandthengoesondiscusswhythetheorywasrapidlyacceptedbutthenpresenttheevidenceonwhichthetheorywasciteevidencethatnowshowsthatthetheoryisexinwhythetheorywasnotinitiallyconsideredThephrasepriortoisclosestinmeaningimmediayinspiteParagraph2supportstheideathat,beforethe1970s,themostarchaeologistsheldwhichofthefollowingviewsabouttheearliestpeopletoreachtheAmericas?TheycouldnothavesaileddirectlyfromBeringiatoAlaskaandthensouthwardbecause,itwasthought,icecoveredtheentirecoastalTheywerenotawarethattheclimatewouldcontinue eTheywouldhavehadnointerestinmigratingsouthwardfromBeringiauntilafterthecontinentalglaciershadbeguntomeltTheylackedthenavigationalskillsandappropriateboatsneededlong-distanceParagraph3:ThemostinfluentialproponentofthecoastalmigrationroutehasbeenCanadianarchaeologistKnutFladmark.Hetheorizedthatwiththeuseofwatercraft,peoplegraduallycolonizedunglaciatedrefugesandareasalongthecontinentalshelfexposedbythelowersealevel.Fladmark'shypothesisreceivedadditionalsupportfromthefactthatthegreatestdiversityinNativeAmericanlanguagesoccursalongthewestcoastoftheAmericans,suggestingthatthisregionhasbeensettledthelongest.Whichofthesentencesbelowbestexpressestheessentialinformationinthehighlightedsentenceinthepassage?Incorrectchoiceschangethemeaninginimportantwaystoleaveoutessentialinformation.Becausethisregionhasbeensettledthelongest,italsodisysthegreatestdiversityinNativeFladmark'shypothesisstatesthatthewestcoastoftheAmericashasbeensettledlongerthananyotherThefactthatthegreatestdiversityofNativeAmericanlanguagesoccursalongthewestcoastoftheAmericanslendsstrengthtoFradmark'shypothesisAccordingtoFladmark,NativeAmericanlanguageshavesurvivedthelongestalongthewestcoastoftheParagraph4:Morerecentgeologicstudieseddeglaciationandtheexistenceofice-areasthroughoutmajorcoastalareasofBritishColumbia,Canada,by13,000yearsago.ResearchnowindicatesthatsizableareasofsoutheasternAlaskaalongtheinnercontinentalshelfwerenotcoveredbyicetowardtheendofthelastIceAge.Onestudysuggeststhatexceptfora250-coastalareabetweensouthwesternBritishColumbiaandWashingtonState,theNorthwestCoastofNorthAmericawaslargelyoficebyapproximay16,000yearsago.Vastareasalongthecoastmayhavebeendeglaciatedbeginningaround16,000yearsago,possiblyprovidingacoastalcorridorforthemovementofnts,animals,andhumanssometimebetween13,000and14,000yearsago.Theauthor'spurposeinparagraph4isindicatethatanumberofrecentgeologicstudiesseemtoprovidesupportforthecoastalindicatethatcoastalandinlandmigrationsmayhavehappenedexinwhyhumansmayhavereachedAmerica'snorthwestcoastbeforeanimalsandntsshowthatthecoastalhypothesismayexinhowpeoplefirstreachedAlaskabutitcannotexinhowpeoplereachedareaslikemodernBritishColumbiaandWashingtonStateThewordVastinthepassageisclosestinmeaningParagraph5:Thecoastalhypothesishasgainedincreasingsupportinrecentyearsbecausetheremainsoflargelandanimals,suchascaribouandbrownbears,havebeenfoundinsoutheasternAlaskadatingbetween10,000and12,500yearsago.Thisisthetimeperiodinwhichmostscientistsformerlybelievedtheareatobeinhospitableforhumans.Ithasbeensuggestedthatiftheenvironmentwerecapableofsupportingbreedingpopulationsofbears,therewouldhavebeenenoughfoodresourcestosupporthumans.FladmarkandothersbelievethatthefirsthumancolonizationofAmericaoccurredbyboatalongtheNorthwestCoastduringtheverylateIceAge,possiblyasearlyas14,000yearsago.Accordingtoparagraph5,thediscoveryoftheremainsoflargelandanimalssupportsthecoastalhypothesisbyprovidingevidencethathumanswerechangingtheirhuntingtechniquestoadapttocoastalratherthaninlandanimalshadmigratedfromtheinlandtothecoasts,anindicationthatamidcontinentalice-corridorwasactuallyimusiblehumansprobablywouldhavebeenabletofindenoughresourcesalongthecoastalthecontinentalshelfwasstillexposedbylowersealevelsduringtheperiodwhenthesouthwardmigrationofpeoplebeganThewordinhospitableinthepassageisclosestinmeaningnotnotnotnotAccordingtoparagraph5,themostrecentgeologicresearchprovidessupportforafirstcolonizationofAmericadatingasfarbackas16,000years14,000years12,500years10,000yearsParagraph6:Thecoastalhypothesissuggestsaneconomybasedonmarinemlhunting,saltwaterfishinggathering,andtheuseofwatercraft.Becauseofthebarrieroficetotheeast,thePacificOceantothewest,andpopulatedareastothenorth,theremayhavebeenagreaterimpetusforpeopletomoveinasoutherlydirection.ThewordimpetusinthepassageisclosestinmeaningParagraph1:IthaslongbeenacceptedthattheAmericaswerecolonizedbyamigrationofpeoplesfromAsia,slowlytravelingacrossalandbridgecalledBeringia(nowtheBeringStraitbetweennortheasternAsiaandAlaska)duringthelastIceAge.■Thefirstwatercrafttheoryaboutthemigrationwasthataround11,000-12,000yearsagotherewasanice-corridorstretchingfromeasternBeringiatotheareasofNorthAmericasouthofthegreatnorthernglaciers.Itwasthemidcontinentalcorridorbetweentwomassiveicesheets-theLaurentidetothewest-thatenabledthesouthwardmigration.■Butbeliefinthisice-corridorbegantocrumblewhenpaleoecologistGlenMacDonalddemonstratedthatsomeofthemostimportantradiocarbondatesusedtosupporttheexistenceofanice-corridorwereincorrect.■Hepersuasivelyarguedthatsuchanice-corridordidnotexistuntilmuchlater,whenthecontinentalicebeganitsfinalretreat.■Moreover,otherevidencesuggeststhatevenifanice-corridordidexist,itwouldhavelackedtheresourcesneededforhumancolonization.Recentevidencefavorsarivaltothelong-standingtheorythattheAmericaswerecolonized11,000-12,000yearsagobypeoplemigratingsouthfromBeringiaalongamidcontinentalice-corridorEvidencethatanice-corridorbetweentwoicesheetsdevelopedwhenthecontinentalicefirstbegantomeltcameprimarilyfromradiocarbondating.Thereisgrowingsupportforthetheorythatmigrationtookcemuchearlier,bysea,followingacoastalroutealongAlaskaanddownthenorthwestcoast.Recentgeologicevidenceindicatesthatcontrarytowhathadbeenbelieved,substantialareasalongthecoastwereoficeasearlyas16,000yearsago.Researchnowindicatesthatthepartsoftheinnercontinentalshelfthatremainedcoveredwithicewerecolonizedbyavarietyofearlyhumangroupswelladaptedtolivinginextremelycoldenvironments.Thereisevidencesuggestingthatareasalongthecoastmayhavecontainedenoughfoodresources13,000and14,000yearsagotohavemadehumancolonizationEventhoughthenorthernpartofthecontinentallowedforamorevariedeconomy,severalearlyhumangroupsquicklymovedsouth.1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14.○23这种观念们接受很长时间了：美洲被一群来自亚洲的殖民着，他们在上一个时代缓慢的LaurentideGlenMacDonald证明一、16,000年前，人们使用船只，也许是那种兽皮做的州南部地区。直到20世纪70年代早期，大部分考古学家都不认为海岸可能是进入美州的路线，因为地理学家一开始就坚信整个西北海岸在上个时代是被冰覆盖的。人们猜测冰从阿拉斯加山脉向西延伸到大陆斯加海湾，向南沿着州西北海岸延伸至今天的州的冰层。、民到没有冰冻的地方以及沿着大陆架的、由于海平面较低而露出来的地区。Fladmark的假设从一个事实那得到了的支持，因为本土语言的最大多样性出现在西海岸沿岸，这就表明这个地区是人类时间最早的。最近的地质研究证明了13000年前在英属哥伦比亚、主要海岸地区无冰区域存在和结冰。现在研了在英属哥伦比亚东南部和州之间的250英里的海岸地区以外，的西北海岸在大概16000年之前都是160001300014000年前的某一段时间内种环境能满足熊的繁殖，那么它就有足够的食物来源来供应人类的生存。Fladmark和其他科学家都认为人类第一次乘船沿着西北岸到达美洲发生在时代的晚期，可能早达14000年以前。多数的地质资料表明：13000年至14000年前，人们殖民因低海平面而露的大陆架沿岸的无冰区域是可能的。REFLECTIONINTeachers,itisthought,benefitfromthepracticeofreflection,theconsciousactofthinkingdeeplyaboutandcarefullyexaminingthein ctionsandeventswithintheirownclassrooms.EducatorsT.WildmanandJ.Niles(1987)describeaschemefordeveloreflectivepracticeinexperiencedteachers.Thiswasjustifiedbytheviewthatreflectivepracticecouldhelpteacherstofeelmoreinlectuallyinvolvedintheirroleandworkinteachingandenablethemtocopewiththepaucityofscientificfactandtheuncertaintyofknowledgeinthedisciplineofteaching.WildmanandNileswereparticularlyinterestedininvestigatingtheconditionsunderwhichreflectionmightflourish-asubjectonwhichthereislittleguidanceintheli ture.TheydesignedanexperimentalstrategyforagroupofteachersinVirginiaandworkedwith40practicingteachersoverseveralyears.Theywereconcernedthatmanywouldbe"drawntothesenew,refreshingconceptionsofteachingonlytofindthatthevoidbetweentheionsandtherealitiesofteacherreflectionistoogreattobridge.Reflectiononacomplextasksuchasteachingisnoteasy."Theteachersweretakenthroughaprogramoftalkingaboutteachingevents,movingontoreflectingaboutspecificissuesinasupported,andlateranindependent,manner.WildmanandNilesobservedthatsystematicreflectiononteachingrequiredasoundabilitytounderstandclassroomeventsinanobjectivemanner.Theydescribetheinitialunderstandingintheteacherswithwhomtheywereworkingasbeing"utilitarian...andnotrichordetailedenoughtodrivesystematicreflection."Teachersrarelyhavethetimeoropportunitiestoviewtheirownortheteachingofothersinanobjectivemanner.Furtherobservationrevealedthetendencyofteacherstoevaluateeventsratherthanreviewthecontributoryfactorsinaconsideredmannerby,ineffect,standingoutsidethesituation.Helthisgroupofteacherstorevisetheirthinkingaboutclassroomeventsbecamecentral.Thisprocesstooktimeandpatienceandeffectivetrainers.Theresearchersestimatethattheinitialtrainingofthesameteacherstovieweventsobjectivelytookbetween20and30hours,withthesamenumberofhoursagainbeingrequiredtopracticetheskillsofreflection.WildmanandNilesidentifythreeprinciplesthatfacilitatereflectivepracticeinateachingsituation.Thefirstissupportfromadministratorsinaneducationsystem,enablingteacherstounderstandtherequirementsofreflectivepracticeandhowitrelatestoteachingstudents.Thesecondistheavailabilityofsufficienttimeandspace.Theteachersintheprogramdescribedhowtheyfounditdifficulttoputasidetheimmediatedemandsofothersinordertogivethemselvesthetimetheyneededtodeveloptheirreflectiveskills.Thethirdisthedevelopmentofacollaborativeenvironmentwithsupportfromotherteachers.Supportandencouragementwerealsorequiredtohelpteachersintheprogramcopewithaspectsoftheirprofessionallifewithwhichtheywerenotcomfortable.WildmanandNilesmakeasummarycomment:"Perhapsthemostimportantthingwelearnedistheideaoftheteacher-as-reflective-practitionerwillnothappensimplybecauseitisagoodorevencompellingidea."TheworkofWildmanandNilessuggeststheimportanceofrecognizingsomeofthedifficultiesofinstitutingreflectivepractice.Othershavenotedthis,makingasimilarpointabouttheteachingprofession'sculturalinhibitionsaboutreflectivepractice.ZeichnerandListon(1987)pointouttheinconsistencybetweentheroleoftheteacherasa(reflective)professionaldecisionmakerandthemoreusualroleoftheteacherasatechnician,puttingintopracticetheideasofothers.Morebasicthantheculturalissuesisthematterofmotivation. ingareflectivepractitionerrequiresextrawork(Jaworski,1993)andhasonlyvaguelydefinedgoalswith,perhaps,littleinitiallyperceivablerewardandthethreatofvulnerability.Fewhavedirectlyquestionedwhatmightleadateachertowantto reflective.Apparently,themostobviousreasonforteacherstoworktowardreflectivepracticeisthatteachereducatorsthinkitisagoodthing.Thereappeartobemanyunexploredmattersaboutthemotivationtoreflect-forexample,thevalueofexternallymotivatedreflectionasopposedtothatofteacherswhomightreflectbyhabit.Paragraph1:Teachers,itisthought,benefitfromthepracticeofreflection,theconsciousactofthinkingdeeplyaboutandcarefullyexaminingtheinctionsandeventswithintheirownclassrooms.EducatorsT.WildmanandJ.Niles(1987)describeaschemefordeveloreflectivepracticeinexperiencedteachers.ThiswasjustifiedbytheviewthatreflectivepracticecouldhelpteacherstofeelmoreinlectuallyinvolvedintheirroleandworkinteachingandenablethemtocopewiththepaucityofscientificfactandtheuncertaintyofknowledgeinthedisciplineofThewordjustifiedinthepassageisclosestinmeaningAccordingtoparagraph1,itwasbelievedthatreflectioncouldhelpunderstandinlectualprinciplesofstrengthentheirinlectualconnectiontotheirusescientificfacttoimprovedisciplineandadoptamoredisciplinedapproachtoParagraph2:WildmanandNileswereparticularlyinterestedininvestigatingtheconditionsunderwhichreflectionmightflourish-asubjectonwhichthereislittleguidanceintheliture.TheydesignedanexperimentalstrategyforagroupofteachersinVirginiaandworkedwith40practicingteachersoverseveralyears.Theywereconcernedthatmanywouldbe"drawntothesenew,refreshingconceptionsofteachingonlytofindthatthevoidbetweenthe ionsandtherealitiesofteacherreflectionistoogreattobridge.Reflectiononacomplextasksuchasteachingisnoteasy."Theteachersweretakenthroughaprogramoftalkingaboutteachingevents,movingontoreflectingaboutspecificissuesinasupported,andlateranindependent,manner.ThewordflourishinthepassageisclosestinmeaningAllofthefollowingarementionedabouttheexperimentalstrategydescribedinparagraph2ItwasdesignedsothatteacherswouldeventuallyreflectwithouthelpfromItwasusedbyagroupofteachersoveraperiodofItinvolvedhavingteacherstakepartindiscussionsofclassroomItinvolvedhavingteachersrecordinwritingtheirreflectionsaboutAccordingtoparagraph2,WildmanandNilesworriedthattheteacherstheywereworkingwithmightfeelthenumberofteachersinvolvedintheirprogramwastootheconceptsofteacherreflectionwere thattheycouldnotbetheideasinvolvedinreflectionwereactuallynotnewandseveralyearswouldbeneededtoacquirethehabitofreflectingontheirParagraph3:WildmanandNilesobservedthatsystematicreflectiononteachingrequiredasoundabilitytounderstandclassroomeventsinanobjectivemanner.Theydescribetheinitialunderstandingintheteacherswithwhomtheywereworkingasbeing"utilitarian...andnotrichordetailedenoughtodrivesystematicreflection."Teachersrarelyhavethetimeoropportunitiestoviewtheirownortheteachingofothersinanobjectivemanner.Furtherobservationrevealedthetendencyofteacherstoevaluateeventsratherthanreviewthecontributoryfactorsinaconsideredmannerby,ineffect,standingoutsidethesituation.ThewordobjectiveinthepassageisclosestinmeaningAccordingtoparagraph3,whatdidtheteachersworkingwithWildmanandNilesoftenfailtodowhentheyattemptedtopracticereflection?CorrectlycalculatetheamountoftimeneededforProvidesufficientlydetaileddescriptionsofthemethodstheyusedtohelpthemExaminethoughtfullythepossiblecausesofeventsintheirEstablishrealisticgoalsforthemselvesinpracticingParagraph4:Helthisgroupofteacherstorevisetheirthinkingaboutclassroomeventsbecamecentral.Thisprocesstooktimeandpatienceandeffectivetrainers.Theresearchersestimatethattheinitialtrainingofthesameteacherstovieweventsobjectivelytookbetween20and30hours,withthesamenumberofhoursagainbeingrequiredtopracticetheskillsofreflection.Howisparagraph4relatedtootheraspectsofthediscussionofreflectionintheItdescribesandcommentsonstepstaken eproblemsidentifiedearlierintheItchallengestheearlierclaimthatteachersrarelyhavethetimetothinkabouttheirownorothers'ItidentifiesadvantagesgainedbyteacherswhofollowedthetrainingprogramdescribedearlierintheItexinstheprocessusedtodefinetheprinciplesdiscussedlaterintheParagraph5:WildmanandNilesidentifythreeprinciplesthatfacilitatereflectivepracticeinateachingsituation.Thefirstissupportfromadministratorsinaneducationsystem,enablingteacherstounderstandtherequirementsofreflectivepracticeandhowitrelatestoteachingstudents.Thesecondistheavailabilityofsufficienttimeandspace.Theteachersintheprogramdescribedhowtheyfounditdifficulttoputasidetheimmediatedemandsofothersinordertogivethemselvesthetimetheyneededtodeveloptheirreflectiveskills.Thethirdisthedevelopmentofacollaborativeenvironmentwithsupportfromotherteachers.Supportandencouragementwerealsorequiredtohelpteachersintheprogramcopewithaspectsoftheirprofessionallifewithwhichtheywerenotcomfortable.WildmanandNilesmakeasummarycomment:"Perhapsthemostimportantthingwelearnedistheideaoftheteacher-as-reflective-practitionerwillnothappensimplybecauseitisagoodorevencompellingidea."ThewordcompellinginthepassageisclosestinmeaningcommonlyParagraph6:TheworkofWildmanandNilessuggeststheimportanceofrecognizingsomeofthedifficultiesofinstitutingreflectivepractice.Othershavenotedthis,makingasimilarpointabouttheteachingprofession'sculturalinhibitionsaboutreflectivepractice.ZeichnerandListon(1987)pointouttheinconsistencybetweentheroleoftheteacherasa(reflective)professionaldecisionmakerandthemoreusualroleoftheteacherasatechnician,puttingintopracticetheideasofothers.Morebasicthantheculturalissuesisthematterofmotivation. ingareflectivepractitionerrequiresextrawork(Jaworski,1993)andhasonlyvaguelydefinedgoalswith,perhaps,littleinitiallyperceivablerewardandthethreatofvulnerability.Fewhavedirectlyquestionedwhatmightleadateachertowanttoereflective.Apparently,themostobviousreasonforteacherstoworktowardreflectivepracticeisthatteachereducatorsthinkitisagoodthing.Thereappeartobemanyunexploredmattersaboutthemotivationtoreflect-example,thevalueofexternallymotivatedreflectionasopposedtothatofteacherswhomightreflectbyAccordingtoparagraph6,teachersmaybediscouragedfromreflectingitisnotgenerallysupportedbyteacherthebenefitsofreflectionmaynotbeapparentimmediaitisimpossibletoteachandreflectonone'steachingatthesametheyhaveoftenfailedintheirattempts ereflectiveWhichofthesentencesbelowexpressestheessentialinformationinthehighlightedsentenceinthepassage?IncorrectchoiceschangethemeaninginimportantwaysorleaveoutessentialinformationThepracticeofbeingreflectiveisnolongersimplyahabitamongteachersbutsomethingthatisMostteachersneedtoexplorewaystoformthehabitofreflectionevenwhennoexternalmotivationManyaspectsofthemotivationtoreflecthavenotbeenstudied,includingthecomparativebenefitsofexternallymotivatedandhabitualreflectionamongteachersTherehasnotbeenenoughexplorationofwhyteacherspracticereflectionasahabitwithorwithoutexternalParagraph4Helthisgroupofteacherstorevisetheirthinkingaboutclassroomeventsbecamecentral.■Thisprocesstooktimeandpatienceandeffectivetrainers.■Theresearchersestimatethattheinitialtrainingofthesameteacherstovieweventsobjectivelytookbetween20and30hours,withthesamenumberofhoursagainbeingrequiredtopracticetheskillsofreflection.Paragraph5■WildmanandNilesidentifythreeprinciplesthatfacilitatereflectivepracticeinateachingThefirstissupportfromadministratorsinaneducationsystem,enablingteacherstounderstandtherequirementsofreflectivepracticeandhowitrelatestoteachingstudents.Thesecondistheavailabilityofsufficienttimeandspace.Theteachersintheprogramdescribedhowtheyfounditdifficulttoputasidetheimmediatedemandsofothersinordertogivethemselvesthetimetheyneededtodeveloptheirreflectiveskills.Thethirdi