雅思阅读机经创新差距

雅思阅读机经 创新的差距THEGAPofINGENUITY

Ingenuity,asIdefineithere,consistsnotonlyofideasfornewlikecomputersordrought-resistantcropsbut,morefundamentally,ofideasforbetterinstitutionsandsocialarrangements,likeefficientmarketsandcompetenternments.

Howmuchandwhatkindsofingenuityasocietyrequiresdependsonarangeoffactors,includingthesociety'sgoalsandthecircumstanceswithinwhichitmustachievethosegoals—whetherithasayoungpopulationoranagingone,anabundanceofnaturalresourcesorascarcityofthem,aneasyclimateorapunishingone,whateverthecasemaybe.

Howmuchandwhatkindsofingenuityasocietysalsodependsonmanyfactors,suchasthenatureofhumaninventivenessandunderstanding,therewardsaneconomygivestotheproducersofusefulknowledge,andthestrengthofpoliticaloppositiontosocialandinstitutionalreforms.

Agoodsupplyoftherightkindofingenuityisessential,butitisn't,ofcourse,enoughbyitself.Weknowthatthecreationofwealth,forexample,dependsnotonlyonanadequatesupplyofusefulideasbutalsoontheavailabilityofother,moreconventionalfactorsofproduction,likecapitalandlabor.Similarly,prosperity,stabilityandjusticeusuallydependontheresolution,oratleastthecontainment,ofmajorpoliticalstrugglesoverwealthandpower.Yetwithinoureconomiesingenuityoftensupntslabor,andgrowthinthestockofphysicalntisusually paniedbygrowthinthestockofingenuity.Andinourpoliticalsystems,weneedgreatingenuitytosetupinstitutionsthatsuccessfullymanagestrugglesoverwealthandpower.Clearly,oureconomicand-politicalprocessesareintimayentangledwiththeproductionanduseofingenuity.

Thepastcentury'scountlessincrementalchangesinoursocietiesaroundthenet,inourandourinctionswithoursurroundingnaturalenvironmentshaveaccumulatedtocreateaqualitativelynewworld.Becausethesechangeshaveaccumulatedslowly,it'softenhardforustorecognizehowprofoundandsweethey've.Theyincludefarlargeranddenserpopulations;muchhigherpercapitaconsumptionofnaturalresources;andfarbetndmorewidelyavailableforthemovementofpeople,materials,andespeciallyinformation.

Incombination,thesechangeshavesharplyincreasedthedensity,intensity,andpaceofourinctionswitheachother;theyhavegreatlyincreasedtheburdenweceonournaturalenvironment;andtheyhavehelpedshiftpowerfromnationalandinternationalinstitutionstoindividualsandsubgroups,suchaspoliticalspecialinterestsandethnicfactions.

Asaresult,peopleinallwalksoflife—fromourpoliticalandbusinessleaderstoallofusinourday-to-day—mustcopewithmuorecomplex,urgent,andoftenunpredictablecircumstances.Themanagementofourrelationshipwiththisnewworldrequiresimmenseandever-increasingamountsofsocialandtechnicalingenuity.Aswestrivetomaintainorincreaseourprosperityandimprovethequalityofourlives,wemustmakefarmoresophisticateddecisions,andinlesstime,thaneverbefore.

Whenweenhancetheperformanceofanysystem,fromourcarstothenet'snetworkoffinancialinstitutions,wetendtomakeitmorecomplex.Manyofthenaturalsystemscriticaltoourwell-being,liketheglobalclimateandtheoceans,areextraordinarilycomplextobeginwith.Weoftencan'tpredictormanagethebehaviorofcomplexsystemswithmuchprecision,becausetheyareoftenverysensitivetothesmallestofchangesandperturbations,andtheirbehaviorcanflipfromonemodetoanothersuddenlyanddramatically.Ingeneral,asthehuman-madeandnaturalsystemswedependupon emorecomplex,

andasourdemandsonthemincrease,theinstitutionsandweusetomanagethemmustemorecomplextoo,whichfurtherboostsourneedforingenuity.

Thegoodnews,though,isthatthelastcentury'sstunningchangesinoursocietiesandhavenotjustincreasedourneedforingenuity;theyhavealsoproducedahugeincreaseinitssupply.Thegrowthandurbanizationofhumanpopulationshavecombinedwithastonishingnewcommunicationandtransportationtoexpandinctionsamongpeopleandproducelarger,moreintegrated,andmoreefficientmarkets.Thesechangeshave,inturn,vastlyacceleratedthegenerationanddeliveryofusefulideas.

But—andthisisthecritical“but"—weshouldnotjumptotheconclusionthatthesupplyofingenuityalwaysincreasesinlockstepwithouringenuityrequirement:whileit'struethatnecessityisoftenthemotherofinvention,wecan'talwaysrelyontherightkindofingenuityappearingwhenandwhereweneedit.Inmanycases,thecomplexityandspeedofoperationoftoday'svitaleconomic,social,aridecologicalsystemceedthehumanbrainsgrasp.Veryfewofushavemorethanarudimentaryunderstandingofhowthesesystemswork.Theyremainfraughtwithcountless"unknownunknowns,"whiakesithardtosupplytheingenuityweneedtosolveproblemsassociatedwiththesesystems.

Inthisbook,exploreawiderangeofotherfactorsthatwilllimitourabilitytosupplytheingenuityrequiredinthecomingcentury.Forexample,manypeoplebelievethatnewcommunicationstrengthendemocracyandwillmakeiteasiertofindsolutionstooursocieties'collectiveproblems,butthestoryislessclearthanitseems.Thecrushofinformationinoureverydaylivesisshorteningourattentionspan,limitingthetimewehavetoreflectoncriticalmattersofpublic,andmakingargumentsmoresuperficial.

Modernmarketsandscienceareanimportantpartofthestoryofhowwesupplyingenuity.Marketsarecriticallyimportant,becausetheygiveentrepreneursanincentivetoproduceknowledge.Asforscience,althoughitseemstofacenotheoreticallimits,atleastintheforeseeablefuture,practicalconstraintsoftenslowitsprogress.Thecostofscientificresearchtendstoincreaseasitdelvesdeeperintonature.Andscience'srateofadvancedependsonthecharacteristicofthenaturalphenomenaitinvestigates,simplybecausesomephenomenaareintrinsicallyhardertounderstandthanothers,sotheproductionofusefulnewknowledgeintheseareascanbeveryslow.Consequently,thereisoftenacriticaltimelagbetweentherecognitionbetweenaproblemandthedeliveryofsufficientingenuity,intheformof,tosolvethatproblem.Progressinthesocialsciencesisespeciallyslow,forreasonswedon'tyetunderstand;butwedesperayneedbettersocialscientificknowledgetobuildthesophisticatedinstitutionstoday'sworlddemands.

Questions27-30

Completeeachsentencewiththeappropriateanswer,A,B，C，orD.Writethecorrectanswerinboxes27-30onyouranswersheet.

Thedefinitionofingenuity

Therequirementforingenuity

Thecreationofsocialwealth

Thestabilityofsociety

dependsonmanyfactorsincludingclimate.

dependsonthemanagementandsolutionofdisputes.

isnotonlyoftechnologicaladvance,butmoreofinstitutionalrenovation.

alsodependsontheavailabilityofsometraditionalresources.

Questions31-33

Choosethecorrectletter,A,B,CorD.

Writeyouranswersinboxes31-33onyouranswersheet.

Whatdoestheauthorsayabouttheincrementalchangeofthelast100years?

Ithas eahotscholasticdiscussionamongenvironmentalists.

Itssignificanceisoftennotnoticed.

Ithasreshapedthenaturalenvironmentswelivein.

Itbenefitedamuchlargerpopulationthanever.

Thecombinationofchangeshasmadelife:

easier

faster

slower

lesssophisticated

Whatdoestheauthorsayaboutthenaturalsystems?

Newarebeingdevelopedtopredictchangewithprecision.

Naturalsystemsareoftenmoresophisticatedthanothersystems.

Minoraltionsmaycausenaturalsystemstochangedramatically.

Technologicaldevelo