后三小时翻译

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(61)TheywanttoexplainwhywepossesscertaincharacteristicsandexhibitcertainThatourenvironmenthaslittleifanythingtodowithourabilitiescharacteristicsandbehavioriscentraltothistheory.Behavioristssuggestthatthechildwhoisraisedinanenvironmentwheretherearemanystimuliwhichdevelophisorhercapacityforappropriateresponseswillexperiencegreaterintellectualdevelopment.Behavioristsincontrastsaythatdifferencesinscoresareduetothefactthatblacksareoftendeprivedofmanyoftheeducationalandotherenvironmentaladvantagesthatwhitesenjoy.1991Thesupplyofoilcanbeshutoffunexpectedlyatanytimeandinanycasetheoilwellswillallrundryinthirtyyearsorsoatthepresentrateofuse.Newsourcesofenergymustbefoundandthiswilltaketimebutitisnotlikelytoresultinanysituationthatwilleverrestorethatsenseofcheapandplentifulenergywehavehadinthetimespast.Thefoodsupplywillnotincreasenearlyenoughtomatchthiswhichmeansthatweareheadingintoacrisisinthematterofproducingandmarketingfood.ThiswillbeparticularlytruesinceenergypinchwillmakeitdifficulttocontinueagricultureinthehighenergyAmericanfashionthatmakesitpossibletocombinefewfarmerswithhighyields.Untilsuchtimeasmankindhasthesensetoloweritspopulationtothepointwheretheplanetcanprovideacomfortablesupportforallpeoplewillhavetoaccept1992Thereismoreagreementonthekindsofbehaviorreferredtobythetermthanthereisonhowtointerpretorclassifythem.Tocriticiseitforsuchfailureisroughlycomparabletocriticisingathermometerfornotmeasuringwindvelocity.NowsincetheassessmentofintelligenceisacomparativematterwemustThefirsttwomustbeequalforallwhoarebeingcomparedifanycomparisonintermsofintelligenceistobemade.Onthewholesuchaconclusioncanbedrawnwithacertaindegreeofconfidencebutonlyifthechildcanbeassumedtohavehadthesameattitudetowardsthetestastheotherswithwhomheisbeingcomparedandonlyifhewasnotpunishedbylackofrelevantinformationwhichtheypossessed.1993Themethodofscientificinvestigationisnothingbuttheexpressionofthenecessarymodeofworkingofthehumanmind;itissimplythemodebywhichallphenomenaarereasonedaboutandgivenpreciseandexactexplanation.Itisnotthatthescalesintheonecaseandthebalanceintheotherdifferintheprinciplesoftheirconstructionormannerofworking;butthatthelatterismuchfinerapparatusandofcoursemuchmoreaccurateinitsmeasurementthantheformer.YouhaveallhearditrepeatedthatmenofscienceworkbymeansofinductionanddeductionthatbythehelpoftheseoperationstheyinasortofsensemanagetoextractfromNaturecertainnaturallawsandthatoutofthesebysomespecialskilloftheirowntheybuilduptheirtheories.Anditisimaginedbymanythattheoperationsofthecommonmindcanbebynomeanscomparedwiththeseprocessesandthattheyhavetobeacquiredbyasortofspecialtraining.Probablythereisnotoneherewhohasnotinthecourseofthedayhadoccasiontosetinmotionacomplextrainofreasoningoftheverysamekindthoughdifferingindegreeasthatwhichascientificmangoesthroughintracingthecausesofnatural1994(71)Sciencemovesforward,theysay,notsomuchthroughtheinsightsofgreatmenofgeniusasbecauseofmoreordinarythingslikeimprovedtechniquesandtools.(72)callit,waslargelytheimprovementandinventionanduseofaseriesofOvertheyears,toolsandtechnologythemselvesasasourceoffundamentalinnovationhavelargelybeenignoredbyhistoriansandphilosophersofscience.Galileo'sgreatestglorywasthatin1609hewasthefirstpersontoturnthenewlyinventedtelescopeontheheavenstoprovethattheplanetsrevolvearoundthesunratherthanaroundtheEarth.WhethertheGovernmentshouldincreasethefinancingofpurescienceattheexpenseoftechnologyorviceversaoftendependsontheissueofwhichisseenasthedrivingforce.1995Thetargetiswrong,forinattackingthetests,criticsdivertattentionfromthefaultthatlieswithill-informedorincompetentusers.Howwellthepredictionswillbevalidatedbylaterperformancedependsupontheamount,reliability,andappropriatenessoftheinformationusedandontheskillandwisdomwithwhichitisinterpreted.Whethertousetests,otherkindsofinformation,orbothinaparticularsituationdepends,therefore,upontheevidencefromexperienceconcerningcomparativevalidityanduponsuchfactorsascostandavailability.Ingeneral,thetestsworkmosteffectivelywhenthequalitiestobemeasuredcanbemostpreciselydefinedandleasteffectivelywhenwhatistobemeasuredorpredictedcannotbewelldefined.Forexample,theydonotcompensateforgrosssocialinequality,andthusdonottellhowableanunderprivilegedyoungstermighthavebeenhadhegrownupundermorefavorablecircumstances.1996Someofthesecausesarecompletelyreasonableresultsofsocialneeds.Othersarereasonableconsequencesofparticularadvancesinsciencebeingtosomeextentself-ThistrendbeganduringtheSecondWorldWar,whenseveralgovernmentscametotheconclusionthatthespecificdemandsthatagovernmentwantstomakeofitsscientificestablishmentcannotgenerallybeforeseenindetail.Thisseemsmostlyeffectivelydonebysupportingacertainamountofresearchnotrelatedtoimmediategoalsbutofpossibleconsequenceinthefuture.However,theworldissomadethatelegantsystemsareinprincipleunabletodealwithsomeoftheworld'smorefascinatinganddelightfulaspects.Newformsofthoughtaswellasnewsubjectsforthoughtmustariseinthefutureastheyhaveinthepast,givingrisetonewstandardsofelegance.1997Actually,itisn't,becauseitassumesthatthereisanagreedaccountofhumanrights,whichissomethingtheworlddoesnothave.Somephilosophersarguethatrightsexistonlywithinasocialcontract,aspartofanexchangeofdutiesandentitlements.Itleadsthediscussiontoextremesattheoutset:itinvitesyoutothinkthatanimalsshouldbetreatedeitherwiththeconsiderationhumansextendtootherhumans,orwithnoconsiderationatall.Arguingfromtheviewthathumansaredifferentfromanimalsineveryrelevantrespect,extremistsofthiskindthinkthatanimalslieoutsidetheareaofmoralchoice.Whenthathappens,itisnotamistake:itismankind'sinstinctformoralreasoninginaction,aninstinctthatshouldbeencouragedratherthanlaughedat.1998Butevenmoreimportant,itwasthefarthestthatscientistshadbeenabletolookintothepast,forwhattheywereseeingwerethepatternsandstructuresthatexisted15billionyearsago.TheexistenceofthegiantcloudswasvirtuallyrequiredfortheBigBang,firstputforwardinthe1920s,tomaintainitsreignasthedominantexplanationofthecosmos.Astrophysicistsworkingwithground-baseddetectorsattheSouthPoleandballoon-borneinstrumentsareclosinginonsuchstructures,andmayreporttheirfindingssoon.Ifthesmallhotspotslookasexpected,thatwillbeatriumphforyetanotherscientificidea,arefinementoftheBigBangcalledtheinflationaryuniversetheory.Oddthoughitsounds,cosmicinflationisascientificallyplausibleconsequenceofsomerespectedideasinelementary-particlephysics,andmanyastrophysicistshavebeenconvincedforthebetterpartofadecadethatitistrue.1999Whiletherearealmostasmanydefinitionsofhistoryastherearehistorians,modernpracticemostcloselyconformstoonethatseeshistoryastheattempttorecreateandexplainthesignificanteventsofthepast.Interestinhistoricalmethodshasarisenlessthroughexternalchallengetothevalidityofhistoryasanintellectualdisciplineandmorefrominternalquarrelsamonghistoriansthemselves.Duringthistransfer,traditionalhistoricalmethodswereaugmentedbyadditionalmethodologiesdesignedtointerpretthenewformsofevidenceinthehistoricalstudy.Thereisnoagreementwhethermethodologyreferstotheconceptspeculiartohistoricalworkingeneralortotheresearchtechniquesappropriatetothevariousbranchesofhistoricalinquiry.Itappliesequallytotraditionalhistorianswhoviewhistoryasonlytheexternalandinternalcriticismofsources,andtosocialsciencehistorianswhoequatetheiractivitywithspecifictechniques.2000Undermodernconditions,thisrequiresvaryingmeasuresofcentralizedcontrolandhencethehelpofspecializedscientistssuchaseconomistsandoperationalresearchFurthermore,itisobviousthatthestrengthofacountry'seconomyisdirectlyboundupwiththeefficiencyofitsagricultureandindustry,andthatthisinturnrestsupontheeffortsofscientistsandtechnologistsofallkinds.Owingtotheremarkabledevelopmentinmasscommunications,peopleeverywherearefeelingnewwantsandarebeingexposedtonewcustomsandideas,whilegovernmentsareoftenforcedtointroducestillfurtherinnovationsforthereasonsgivenabove.intheearlyindustrializedcountriesofEuropetheprocessofindustrializationwithallthefarreachingchangesinsocialpatternsthatfollowedwasspreadovernearlyacentury,whereasnowadaysadevelopingnationmayundergothesameprocessinadecadeorso.Additionalsocialstressesmayalsooccurbecauseofthepopulationexplosionorproblemsarisingfrommassmigrationmovementsthemselvesmaderelativelyeasynowadaysbymodernmeansoftransport.2001Therewillbetelevisionchatshowshostedbyrobots,andcarswithpollutionmonitorsthatwilldisablethemwhentheyoffend.Childrenwillplaywithdollsequippedwithpersonalitychips,computerswithin-builtpersonalitieswillberegardedasworkmatesratherthantools,relaxationwillbeinfrontofsmell-television,anddigitalagewillhavearrived.Pearsonhaspiecedtogethertheworkofhundredsofresearchersaroundtheworldtoproduceauniquemillenniumtechnologycalendarthatgivesthelatestdateswhenwecanexpecthundredsofkeybreakthroughsanddiscoveriestotakeplace.Butthat,Pearsonpointsout,isonlythestartofman-machineintegration:Itwillbethebeginningofthelongprocessofintegrationthatwillultimatelyleadtoafullyelectronichumanbeforetheendofthenextcentury.Andhomeapplianceswillalsobecomesosmartthatcontrollingandoperatingthemwillresultinthebreakoutofanewpsychologicaldisorderkitchenrage.2002Onedifficultyisthatalmostallofwhatiscalledbehavioralsciencecontinuestotracebehaviortostatesofmind,feelings,traitsofcharacter,humannature,andsoon.Thebehavioralscienceshavebeenslowtochangepartlybecausetheexplanatoryitemsoftenseemtobedirectlyobservedandpartlybecauseotherkindsofexplanationshavebeenhardtofind.(63)Theroleofnaturalselectioninevolutionwasformulatedonlyalittlemorethanahundredyearsago,andtheselectiveroleoftheenvironmentinshapingandmaintainingthebehavioroftheindividualisonlybeginningtoberecognizedandstudied.Theyarethepossessionsoftheautonomous(self-governing)manoftraditionaltheory,andtheyareessentialtopracticesinwhichapersonisheldresponsibleforhisconductandgivencreditforhisachievements.Untiltheseissuesareresolved,atechnologyofbehaviorwillcontinuetoberejected,andwithitpossiblytheonlywaytosolveourproblems.2003Furthermore,humanshavetheabilitytomodifytheenvironmentinwhichtheylive,thussubjectingallotherlifeformstotheirownpeculiarideasandfancies.Socialscienceisthatbranchofintellectualenquirywhichseekstostudyhumansandtheirendeavorsinthesamereasoned,orderly,systematic,anddispassionedmannerthatnaturalscientistsuseforthestudyofnaturalphenomena.Theemphasisondatagatheredfirst-hand,combinedwithacross-culturalperspectivebroughttotheanalysisofculturespastandpresent,makesthisstudyauniqueanddistinctlyimportantsocialscience.law,custom,andanyothercapabilitiesandhabitsacquiredbymanasamembermathematics,isanabstractconceptwhichmakespossibleimmenseamountsofconcreteresearchandunderstanding.TheGreeksassumedthatthestructureoflanguagehadsomeconnectionwiththeprocessofthought,whichtookrootinEuropelongbeforepeoplerealizedhowdiverselanguagescouldbe.Weareobligedtothembecausesomeoftheselanguageshavesincevanished,asthepeopleswhospokethemdiedoutorbecameassimilatedandlosttheirnativeThenewlydescribedlanguageswereoftensostrikinglydifferentfromthewell-studiedlanguagesofEuropeandSoutheastAsiathatsomescholarsevenaccusedBoasandSapiroffabricatingtheirdata.Beinginterestedintherelationshipoflanguageandthought,WhorfdevelopedtheideathatthestructureoflanguagedeterminesthestructureofhabitualthoughtmaWhorfcametobelieveinasortoflinguisticdeterminismwhich,initsstrongestform,statesthatlanguageimprisonsthemind,andthatthegrammaticalpatternsinalanguagecanproducefar-reachingconsequencesforthecultureofasociety.groupswhichbringtogethertelevision,radionewspapers,magazinesandpublishinghousesthatworkinrelationtooneanother.48)Thisalonedemonstratesthatthetelevisionbusinessisnotaneasyworldtosurvivein,afactunderlinedbystatisticsthatshowthatoutofeightyEuropeantelevisionnetworksnolessthan50%tookalossin1989.whichgotomakeuptheconnectingfabricoftheOldContinentisnoeasytaskanddemandsastrategicchoiceIshalldefinehimasanindividualwhohaselectedashisprimarydutyandpleasureinlifetheactivityofthinkinginSocratic( )wayaboutmoralHisfunctionisanalogoustothatofajudge,whomustaccepttheobligationofrevealinginasobviousamanneraspossiblethecourseofreasoningwhichledhimtohisdecision.Ihaveexcludedhimbecause,whilehisaccomplishmentsmaycontributetothesolutionofmoralproblems,hehasnotbeenchargedwiththetaskofapproachinganybutthefactualaspectsofthoseproblems.Buthisprimarytaskisnottothinkaboutthemoralcode,whichgovernshisactivity,anymorethanabusinessmanisexpectedtodedicatehisenergiestoanexplorationofrulesofconductinbusiness.Theymayteachverywellandmorethanearntheirsalaries,butmostofthemmakelittleornoindependentreflectionsonhumanproblemswhichinvolvemoraljudgment.Traditionally,legallearninghasbeenviewedinsuchinstitutionsasthespecialpreserveoflawyers,ratherthananecessarypartoftheintellectualequipmentofaneducatedperson.Ontheother,itlinkstheseconceptstoeverydayrealitiesinamannerwhichisparalleltothelinksjournalistsforgeonadailybasisastheycoverandcommentontheButtheideathatthejournalistmustunderstandthelawmoreprofoundlythananordinarycitizenrestsonanunderstandingoftheestablishedconventionsandspecialresponsibilitiesofthenewsmedia.Infact,itisdifficulttoseehowjournalistswhodonothaveacleargraspofthebasicfeaturesoftheCanadianConstitutioncandoacompetentjobonpoliticalstories.Whilecommentandreactionfromlawyersmayenhancestories,itispreferableforjournaliststorelyontheirownnotionsofsignificanceandmaketheirown2008hebelievesthatthisverydifficultymayhavehadthecompensatingadvantageofforcinghimtothinklongandintentlyabouteverysentence,andthusenablinghimtodetecterrorsinreasoningandinhisownobservations.Heasserted,also,thathispowertofollowalongandpurelyabstracttrainofthoughtwasverylimited,forwhichreasonhefeltcertainthathenevercouldhavesucceededwithmathematics.Ontheotherhand,hedidnotacceptaswellfoundedthechargemadebysomeofhiscriticsthat,whilehewasagoodobserver,hehadnopowerofreasoning.(50)Darwinwasconvincedthatthelossofthesetasteswasnotonlyalossofhappiness,butmightpossiblybeinjurioustotheintellect,andmoreprobablytothemoral2009ItmaybesaidthatthemeasureoftheworthofanysocialinstitutionisitseffectOnlygraduallywastheby-productoftheinstitutionnoted,andonlymoregraduallystillwasthiseffectconsideredasadirectivefactorintheconductoftheWhileitiseasytoignoreinourcontactwiththemtheeffectofouractsupontheirdisposition,itisnotsoeasyasindealingwithadults.Sinceourchiefbusinesswiththemistoenablethemtoshareinacommonlifewecannothelpconsideringwhetherornoweareformingthepowerswhichwillsecurethisability.Wearethusledtodistinguish,withinthebroadeducationalprocesswhichwehavebeensofarconsidering,amoreformalkindofeducation--thatofdirecttuitionorschooling.2010Scientistsjumpedtotherescuewithsomedistinctlyshakyevidencetotheeffectthatinsectswouldeatusupifbirdsfailedtocontrolthem.butwehaveatleastdrawnnearthepointofadmittingthatbirdsshouldcontinueasamatterofintrinsicright,regardlessofthepresenceorabsenceofeconomicadvantagetous.Timewaswhenbiologistssomewhatoverworkedtheevidencethatthesecreaturespreservethehealthofgamebykillingthephysicallyweak,orthattheypreyonlyonInEurope,whereforestryisecologicallymoreadvanced,thenon-commercialtreespeciesarerecognizedasmembersofnativeforestcommunity,tobepreservedassuch,withinreason.Ittendstoignore,andthuseventuallytoeliminate,manyelementsinthelandcommunitythatlackcommercialvalue,butthatareessentialtoitshealthyfunctioning.2011--thatbecausewenotrobotswethereforecontrolourthoughts-andrevealitserroneouswhilewemaybeabletosustaintheillusionofcontrolthroughthemyselfdothisorThisseemsajustificationforneglectofthoseinneed,andarationalizationofexploitation,ofthesuperiorityofthoseatthetopandtheinferiorityofthoseattheCircumstancesseemtobedesignedtobringoutthebestinusandifwefeelfromourTheupsideisthepossibilitiescontainedinknowingthateverythingisuptous;wherebeforewewereexpertsinthearrayoflimitations,nowwebecomeauthoritiesofwhatispossible.2012Inphysics,oneapproachtakesthisimpulseforunificationtoitsextreme,andseeksatheoryofeverythingasinglegenerativeequationforallwesee.Here,Darwinismseemstoofferjustification,forifallhumanssharecommonorigins,itseemsreasonabletosupposethatculturaldiversitycouldalsobetracedtomoreconstrainedbegin.(48)Tofilteroutwhatisuniquefromwhatissharedmightenableustounderstandhowcomplexculturalbehaviouraroseandwhatguidesitinevolutionaryorcognitiveterms.(49)Thesecond,byJoshuaGreenberg,takesamoreempiricalapproachtouniversality,identifyingtraits(particularlyinwordorder)sharedbymanylanguages,whichareconsideredtorepresentbiasesthatresultfromcognitiveconstraints.(grammarshouldshowpatternsoflanguagechangethatareindependentofthefamilytreeorthepathwaytrackedthroughit,whereasGreenbergianuniversalitypredictsstrongco-dependenciesbetweenparticulartypesofword-order2013yetwhenonelooksatthephotographsofthegardenscreatedbythehomeless,itstrikesonethat,foralltheirdiversityofstyles,thesegardensspeakofvariousotherfundamentalurges,beyondthatofdecorationandcreativeexpression.Asacredplaceofpeace,howevercrudeitmaybe,isadistinctlyhumanneed,asopposedtoshelter,whichisadistinctlyanimalneed.Thegardensofthehomelesswhichareineffecthomelessgardensintroduceintoanurbanenvironmentwhereiteitherdidntexistorwasnotdiscernibleasmostofusgiveintoademoralizationofspiritwhichweusuallyblameonsomepsychologicalconditions,untilonedaywefindourselvesinagardenandfeeltheoppressionvanishasifbymagic.Itisthisimplicitorexplicitreferencetonaturethatfullyjustifiestheuseofthewordgardenthoughina"liberated"sense,todescribethesesyntheticconstructions.Inthemwecanseebiophiliaayearningforcontactwithnonhumanlifeassuminguncannyrepresentationalforms.2014Itisalsothereasonwhywhenwetrytodescribemusicwithwords,allwecandoisarticulateourreactionstoit,andnotgraspmusicitself.Byallaccountshewasafreethinkingperson,andacourageousone,andIfindcourageanessentialqualityfortheunderstanding,letalonetheperforman