(结构力学)判断零杆

Chapter7ValuesChapter7Values1BackgroundItistheaimofthebehaviorthatultimatelydeterminesitsgoodness.Partofthegoodlifeisthearticulationandpursuitofthosegoalsthatwedeemworthy;thesearevalues.Valuesareoftenmoral,religious,orpoliticalinnature,andtheyfiguremightilyinthelivesthatweleadorshouldlead.BackgroundItistheaimofth2Asthenumberofoptionsweconfrontincreases,sotoodoestheamountoftimewespendmakingdecisions,eventrivialones,asdoesourafter-the-factregretoverwhatwechose.Thosewhowanttomaketheverybestchoiceamongalternativesarecalledmaximizers;whilethosewhoarecontenttomakeagood-enoughchoicearecalledsatisficers.Nooneisapuremaximizerorapuresatisficers,butpeoplecanbearrayedalongtheimpliedcontinuum.Asthenumberofoptionsweco3(结构力学)判断零杆4(结构力学)判断零杆5Fortheindividuals,valuesnotonlysuggestgoalsofactionbutalsothecriteriabywhichthesegoalsareevaluated.IFunctionofvaluesFortheindividuals,valuesno6Whenarevaluesandbehaviorsmostlikelytobecongruent?Thecircumstancesunderwhichapersonoriginallyacquiresavalue.Thedegreetowhichavaluehelpstodefineaperson’sself-image.Whetherpeopleareself-consciouswhiletheyarebehaving.Aperson’sevaluationoftheparticularbehaviorthatsupposedlyreflectsthevalueinquestion.Thegeneralityofthevaluewithregardtothebehaviorthatisbeingexamined.Thescopeofthebehaviorrelevanttothevalue.Whenarevaluesandbehaviors7IFunctionofvaluesValuesallowustosustainouractivitiesagainsttheimmediatecausalgrainandtobeindependent.Valuesareexpressive.Theytelltheworld-andourselves-whoweareandwhatismostimportantaboutus.Afinalfunctionofvaluesistoprovidejustificationforwhatwedoandfeel.IFunctionofvaluesValue8IFunctionofvaluesValueshavesocialfunctions.Peopleinthesamegroupprofessthesamesortsofvalues,atleastinsofarthevaluesarerelevanttothegroup’spurpose.Sharedvaluesregularizebehaviorwithinagroupinanefficientwaybyarticulatingageneralrulethatappliesbroadly.Sharedvaluesjustifysanctionsagainstdeviants,andtheyhelptomusterthecollectiveindignationofthegroupagainstanoffender.Valuesheldbygroupmembersalsoallowthemtojudgeothergroupsandtodecidehowtotreatthem.Sharedvaluesarenotjustameansofsocialcontrolandawaytoprotectthestatusquo.IFunctionofvaluesValueshav9IIWhatarevalues?Ingeneral,avalueisanenduringbeliefthatsomegoalsarepreferabletoothers.Psychologicalapproachestreatvaluenotsimplyasanounbutalsoasaverb.Howdowearriveatpreferredgoals?InterviewAvaluesisapreferredgoalthatoneregardas:InherentgoodAbsolutelygoodUniversallygoodIIWhatarevalues?Ingeneral,10WilliamScott(1963)Interviewwithcollegestudentstwogenerationsago:AchievementCreativityHonestyIndependenceIntellectualismKindnessLoyaltyPhysicalprowessReligiousnessSelf-controlSocialskillsstatusWilliamScott(1963)Intervieww11ValuesareidealsCeilingeffectsValuesare:ValuesarebeliefsheldbyindividualsandsharedbygroupsaboutdesirableendsTheytranscendspecificsituationsTheyguidehowweselectactionsandevaluateothersandourselvesTheyareorderedbytheirrelativeimportanceTheyarenotheldinavacuumTheyarepartofsomeone’slargerideologyabouttheworldandhowitshouldbeValuesareideals12IIIWhatarevaluesnot?Valuesarenotattitude.Valuesareabstractideals,whereasattitudesarefavorableorunfavorableevaluationsofaspecificobjectorissue.Abstractvaluessubsumespecificattitudes.E.g.,thevalueofequalitymaytranslateitselfintostrongsupportforaffirmativeactionprograms,butitmayalsoleadtoequallystrongoppositiontosuchprograms.Mostvaluesaremorecentraltoanindividual’sself-conceptthanaremostattitudes.Valuesaremorestableacrossthelifespanthanareattitudes.IIIWhatarevaluesnot?Values13IIIWhatarevaluesnot?Valuesarenottraits.Traitsaredispositionstothink,feel,andactinconsistentwaysValuesarebeliefsaboutdesirablegoalswhichmaynotmapneatlyontospecificorconsistentbehaviorValuesarenotnorms.Normsarethoroughlysituational---sharedbeliefsthatoneshouldactincertainwaysincertaincircumstancesValuescutacrosssituations.IIIWhatarevaluesnot?Values14IIIWhatarevaluesnot?Valuesarenotneeds.NeedshaveabiologicalconnotationandfunctionasmotivesValuesenterintotheprocessbyprovidingsociallyacceptablewaysofarticulatingneeds.Andtheydictatedesirableorundesirablewaystogratifyagivenneed.IIIWhatarevaluesnot?Values15IVCatalogingValuesMiltonRokeach(1973)---terminalvalues:AcomfortablelifeAnexcitinglifeAsenseofaccomplishmentAworldatpeaceAworldofbeautyEqualityFamilysecurityFreedomHappinessInnerharmonyMatureloveNationalsecurityPleasureSalvationSelf-respectSocialrecognitionTruefriendshipwisdomIVCatalogingValuesMiltonRok16IVCatalogingValuesGordonAllport:Theoretical:valuingtruthanditsdiscoveryEconomic:valuingwhatisusefulandpracticalAesthetic:valuingwhatisbeautifulandharmoniousPolitical:valuingpower,influence,andrenownSocial:valuingotherpeopleandtheirwelfareReligious:valuingtranscendenceandcommunionwiththelargeruniverse.IVCatalogingValuesGordonAll17IVCatalogingValuesRonaldInglehart:basedonMaslow’shierarchyofneeds:SurvivalvaluesSelf-expressivevaluesPhilosophySisselaBok(1995):PositivedutiesofmutualcareandreciprocityNegativeinjunctionsagainstviolence,deceit,andbetrayalNormsforrudimentaryfairnessandproceduraljusticeincasesofconflictregardingpositivedutiesandnegativeinjunctionsMinimalistvaluesIVCatalogingValuesRonaldIng18IVCatalogingValuesPsychologistShalomSchwartz:BiologicallybasedneedsoftheindividualRequirementsforsocialcoordinationandinteractionInstitutionaldemandsconcerninggroupwelfareTimothyKasser(2005):TimeaffluenceMaterialaffluenceIVCatalogingValuesPsychologi19VMeasuringValuesResearchforthemostparthaveassumedthatpeopleknowwhattheythinkisdesirableandhencecanreporttheirvalues.Byfarthemosttypicalwayofmeasuringvaluesreliesonself-report.VMeasuringValuesResearchfor20VMeasuringValuesSomeresearchersaskrespondentsaboutspecificattitudesandbehaviorsthatpresumablyreflectagivenvalue.Problemwiththisstrategy:althoughbehaviorsandattitudesareofcourserelatedtomoregeneralvalues,therelationshipisnotoneofperfectredundancy.Arelatedproblemwiththisapproachisthatitmakesitimpossibletoinvestigatethedegreetowhichbehaviorsandattitudesarecongruentwithvaluesorthecircumstancesthatdeterminethiscongruence.VMeasuringValuesSomeresearc21VMeasuringValuesPeoplecanbedirectlyaskedabouttheirvalues.Someresearchersaskforasimpleyes-noendorsementofparticularvaluesSomeresearchersaskformorefine-graineddistinction,usingpsychology’s5-pointor7-pointscalesofagreementorendorsement.Insomeapproachestovaluemeasurement,onlyonequestionpervalueisasked,astrategythatisefficientbutsuspicious.Analtogetherdifferentapproachtomeasurementasksrespondentstorankorderdifferentvalues.VMeasuringValuesPeoplecanb22Thedrawbacksoftherankingapproach:Withipsativescores,wecannotmakeabsolutecomparisonsacrosspeople.Itlimitsthenumberofitemsthatcanbeconsideredbyaresearchparticipantatthesometime.Thedrawbacksoftherankinga23VIAUniversalStructureofHumanValuesShalomSchwartz:tendifferentvaluesAchievementBenevolenceConformityHedonismPowerSecuritySelf-directionStimulationTraditionUniversalismVIAUniversalStructureofHu24VIAUniversalStructureofHumanValuesThesevaluesarestructuredalongtwobasicdimensions,inacircumplexmodel:Iftwovaluesareclosetooneanotheronthecircle,thentheyarecompatible,andthesamepeopletendtoendorseboth.Iftwovaluesareonoppositesidesofthecircle,thentheytendtobeincompatibleandnotlikelytobeheldbythesamepeople.VIAUniversalStructureofHu25VIAUniversalStructureofHumanValuesOnedimension:iswhethervaluesrevolvearoundself-enhancementoraroundself-transcendence.Anotherdimension:isanchoredononeendbyconservationandontheotherbyopennesstochange.VIAUniversalStructureofHu26VIIOriginofValueTheacquisitionofspecificvalueswasexplainedintermsofrewardandpunishment.Modeling:emulatingwhatinfluentialotherssayanddoCognitiveexplanations:valuesacquisitionwasexplainedintermsofinherenttendenciestobeconsistentinwhatonebelieves.Positivepsychology:acquirevaluesbyadeliberatetendenciesprocessofasking