英语语言学概论课件

英语语言学概论课程课件Chapter2SpeechSoundsPurposeofteaching:MakestudentsfamiliarwithspeechsoundsproductionandperceptionandsoundpatternsFocalpointsofteaching:HowsoundsincludingvowelsandconsonantsareproducedandhowsoundsarepatternedSpeechproductionandperception(言语产生和感知）Language:asystemofvocalsymbolsPhonetics:thestudyofsoundsPhonology:thestudyofsoundpatternsArticulatoryphonetics(发音语音学):thestudyoftheproductionofspeechsoundsAcousticphonetics(声学语音学):thestudyofthephysicalpropertiesofthesoundsproducedinspeechAuditoryphonetics(听觉语音学):thestudyoftheperceptionofspeechsoundsSpeechorgansSpeechorgans(vocalorgans)(言语器官):thosepartofthehumanbodyinvolvedintheproductionofspeechPartofthebodythatareinvolvedintheproductionofspeech:thelungs,thetrachea(气管),thethroat,thenoseandthemouthThemouth:thetongue,theplate(腭)Thethroat:pharynx(upper)(咽),larynx(lowerthevocalfolds)(喉头)Thevocaltract(声道):thepharynx,mouth,andnoseThemouth:theoralcavity(口腔)Thenose:thenasalcavity(鼻腔)SpeechorgansPulmonicsounds(肺闭塞音):Theairstream(气流)isforcedoutofthelungsandthenpassesthroughthebronchioles(细支气管)andbronchi(支气管)intothetrachea.Larynx:atthetopofthetrachea,thevocalfoldsandventricularfolds(膨胀带)Voiceless(清音):thevocalfoldsareapart,theaircanpasseasily[p,s,t]Voiced(浊音):thevocalfoldsareclosetogether,theairstreamcausesthemtovibrateagainsteachother[b,z,d]Glottalstop(喉塞音):thevocalfoldsaretotallyclosed,noaircanpassbetweenthem发音器官的构造及其作用世界上所有的声音都是物体振动产生的声波在介质中传递的结果，因此声音的产生离不开振动的动力、振动的源头和振动的共鸣腔。语音说到底也是一种声音，因而也离不开振动的动力、源头和共鸣腔，只不过语音是由人类的发音器官各部分协同动作所产生的，研究语音的产生，就必须首先了解发音器官的构造和功能。人类的发音器官可以分为三大部分：呼吸器官、喉头声带与声腔（口腔、鼻腔与咽腔），我们详细介绍各部分的构造和功能。1呼吸器官呼吸器官主要包括肺、气管和支气管。肺部的收缩和扩张可以产生呼气和吸气的气流变化，这种气流变化不仅为人类的生存提供氧气和二氧化碳的交换，而且为语音的发出提供了振动的动力。世界上多数语言的语音利用呼气作为动力，非洲有些语言还利用吸气发音。

2喉头和声带喉头由软骨构成，呈圆筒状，上接咽腔，下接气管，喉头的外表就是喉结。喉头软骨构成的"圆筒"中有一对声带，声带是两片富有弹性的唇性肌肉，其前后两端都粘附在软骨上。两片声带之间的空隙叫声门，声门又可以分为音门和气门两部分。由于肌肉的松弛紧缩和软骨的开合回转，声带可以放松或拉紧，声门可以打开和关闭，从而产生不同的气流状态。声带的两小片肌肉可以在气流的冲击下振动，这种振动产生了语音中的浊音。所以声带的主要作用是振动的源头之一--浊音的音源。3声腔声腔包括口腔、鼻腔和咽腔三部分。口腔可分为上下两个部分，上面部分包括上唇、上齿、齿龈、硬腭、软腭和小舌。齿龈是上腭前段凸出的部分，硬腭是齿龈之后口腔上壁坚硬的部分，软腭是硬腭后面的柔软部分。软腭后面连接的是小舌，软腭与小舌可以上下移动。口腔的下面部分包括下唇、下齿和舌头。舌头是口腔里最重要、最灵活的器官，它可以分为舌尖、舌叶、舌面三部分。舌尖位于舌头的最前端，舌头自然平伸时，舌尖后面与齿龈相对的部分叫舌叶。舌叶之后的部分叫舌面，又可以分为前、中、后三部分。其中相对于硬腭的部分是舌面前和舌面中，相对于软腭的部分是舌面后，舌面后又可以叫舌跟。

鼻腔位于口腔的上方，好像一个是楼上，一个是楼下，上腭就是楼板，而软腭带动小舌就像一扇活动的楼门。（解释：口音鼻音鼻化音）咽腔位于喉头的上面，是一个管状的三岔口，上通鼻腔，前通口腔，下通喉头和食道。在上述各发音器官中，有些器官如唇、舌、软腭、小舌、声带等是能活动的，叫作主动发音器官；有些器官如上齿、齿龈、硬腭等是不能活动的，叫作被动发音器官。我们发音的时候，常由主动发音器官向被动发音器官接触或靠近，让气流冲击产生振动而发音。声腔是人类最重要的发音器官，声腔中又以口腔及其中的各种器官作用最大。Segments,divergences,andphonetictranscriptionSegmentsanddivergences(音段和分化)TheEnglishspellingdoesnotrepresentitspronunciation.TherearemoresoundsinEnglishthanitsletterscanrepresent,andmanyEnglishwordshavebeenborrowedfromotherlanguages.2.PhonetictranscriptionTheInternationalPhoneticAlphabet(IPA)(标音法)

theinternationalphoneticassociation(国际语音协会)TheideaofestablishingaphoneticalphabetwasfirstproposedbytheDanishgrammarianOttoJespersenin1886,andthefirstversionoftheIPAwaspublishedinAugust1888.Consonants（辅音）ConsonantsandvowelsThesoundsegmentsaregroupedintoconsonantsandvowels.Consonantsareproducedbyconstrictingorobstructingthevocaltractatsomeplacetodivert,impede,orcompletelyshutofftheflowofairintheoralcavity.Avowelisproducedwithoutobstructionoftheair.ConsonantsMannersofarticulation(发音方法):thewayinwhichtheairpassesthroughcertainpartsofthevocaltractPlacesofarticulation(发音部位):whereinthevocaltractthereisapproximation,narrowing,ortheobstructionofairMannersofarticulation

（发音方式）1)Stop(plosive)(塞音，爆破音):completeclosureofthearticulatorsinvolved2)Fricative(擦音):closeapproximationoftwoarticulatorssothattheairstreamispartiallyobstructed3)(Median)Approximant(中）通音:anarticulationinwhichonearticulatorisclosetoanother,butnoturbulentairstreamisproduced.4)Lateral(Approximant)边（通）音:obstructionoftheairstreamatapointalongthecenteroftheoraltract,withincompleteclosurebetweenoneorbothsidesofthetongueandtheroofofthemouthOthers:Trill(颤音),Tap(触音),Affricate(塞擦音)Placesofarticulation（发音部位）1)Bilabial(双唇音):madewiththetwolips2)Labiodental(唇齿音):madewiththelowerlipandtheupperfrontteeth3)Dental(齿音):madebythetonguetiporbladeandtheupperfrontteeth4)Alveolar(齿龈音):madewiththetonguetiporbladeandthealveolarridge5)Postalveolar(后齿龈音):madewiththetonguetipandthebackofthealveolarridge6)Retroflex(卷舌音):madewiththetonguetiporbladecurledback7)Palatal(腭音):madewiththefrontofthetongueandthehardpalate8)Velar(软腭音):madewiththebackofthetongueandthesoftpalatePlacesofarticulation9)Uvular(小舌音):madewiththebackofthetongueandtheuvula10)Pharyngeal(咽音):madewiththerootofthetongueandthewallsofthepharynx11)Glottal(声门音):madewiththetwopiecesofvocalfoldspushedtowardseachotherTheconsonantsofEnglishThemostcommonaccentintheteachingofEnglish:RECEIVEDPRONUNCIATION(RP)(BBCEnglish,OxfordEnglish).ItoriginateshistoricallyinthesoutheastofEnglandandisspokenbytheupper-middlesandupperclassesthroughoutEngland.SeethechartofEnglishconsonantsonpage44.VowelsThecriteriaofvoweldescription1)thepartofthetonguethatisraisedfront,center,back2)theextenttowhichthetonguerisesinthedirectionofthepalatehigh,mid,low3)thekindofopeningmadeatthelipsdegreesofliproundingorspreading4)thepositionofthesoftpalateraisedfororalvowelsandloweredfornasalizedvowelsThecardinalvowels（基本元音）

FirstsuggestedbyA.J.Ellisin1844./Thecardinalvoweldiagramisasetofstandardreferencepointsbasedonacombinationofarticulatoryandauditoryjudgments.Thefront,center,andbackofthetonguearedistinguished,asarefourlevelsoftongueheight(thehighestposition,thelowestpositionandtwointermediatelevels)./Eightprimarycardinalvowels:seepage47/Schwa(中性元音):theneutralvowel.Thetonguepositionisneitherhighnorlowandneitherfrontnorback.Vowelglides(元音音渡）PureorMonophthongvowels(纯元音或单元音):VowelswhosequalityremainsconstantthroughoutthearticulationVowelglides:VowelswhosequalitychangesthroughoutarticulationDiphthong(双元音):asinglemovement(way,tide,how,toy,toe)Triphthong(三重元音):adoublemovement(wire,tower)ThevowelsofRP1.Seethetableonpage52.2.Fourbasicrequirementsforthedescriptionofvowels:1)Theheightoftongueraising(high,mid,low)2)Thepositionofthehighestpartofthetongue(front,central,back)3)Thelengthortensenessofthevowel(tensevs.laxorlongvs.short)4)Lip-rounding(roundedvs.unrounded)Coarticulation(协同发音）Speechisacontinuousprocess.Soundsmaybeinfluencedbytheirneighbors.(map,lamb)/Whensuchsimultaneousoroverlappingarticulationsareinvolved,wecalltheprocesscoarticulation.Ifthesoundbecomesmorelikethefollowingsound(lamb),itisknownasanticipatorycoarticulation(逆化协同发音)./Ifthesounddisplaystheinfluenceoftheprecedingsound(map),itisperseverativecoarticulation(重复性协同发音)./Theformeraremorecommonthanthelatter.Broadandnarrowtranscriptions(宽式和严式标音）TheIPAcharthasasetofdiacritics(附加符号)forthepurposeoftranscribingthesmalldifferencebetweenvariationsofthesamesound.Inmosttime,itisnotnecessarytoindicatesuchvariationsofasound.Ifweuseasimplesetofsymbolsinthetranscription,itiscalledaBroadTranscription.AndtheuseofmorespecificsymbolstoshowmorephoneticdetailsisNarrowTranscription.Seethetableonpage54forthecomparison.Phonologicalanalysis(音位分析)Phonology:thestudyofthesoundsystemsoflanguage/concernedwiththelinguisticpatterningofsounds/itsprimaryaimbeingtodiscovertheprinciplesthatgovernthewaysoundsareorganizedandtoexplainthevariationsthatoccurDifferencebetweenphoneticsandphonology:Phoneticsisthestudyofallpossiblespeechsoundswhilephonologystudiesthewayinwhichspeakersofalanguagesystematicallyuseaselectionofthesesoundsinordertoexpressmeaning.Anexampletoshowthedifferencebetween

phoneticsandphonologyInthestudyofcoarticulationinEnglish,itisoftensaidthatthearticulationofthe[t]soundsinthewordsteaandtoodifferfromeachotherslightly.Inthe[t]ofteathetongueisbroughttowardsthefrontofthemouthincomparisonwiththe[t]oftoo.Thereasonforthisisthatthevowel[i:]ofteadragsthetongueslightlyfurtherinthemouththanthevowel[u:]oftoo.Itisvirtuallyimpossibletopronounceaclearandpure[i:]typevowelimmediatelyafterthekindof[t]soundintea.Somedegreeoffrontinginthesecircumstancesisphysiologicallyinevitable.Phoneticiansareconcernedwithhowthesetwo[t]’sdifferinthewaytheyarepronouncedwhilephonologistsareinterestedinthepatterningofsuchsoundsandtherulesthatunderliesuchvariations.Phonemes（音位）Minimalpairs(最小对立体):Phonologicalanalysisreliesontheprinciplethatcertainsoundscausechangesinthemeaningofaword.e.g.[t]and[d]:tin/din,tie/die;[i:]and[i]:beat/bit,bead/bidTheseimportantunitsarecalledphonemes.Phonemesaretranscribedwithinslantlinesinsteadofsquarebrackets.Seethefigureonpage56forsomeoftheminimalpairsofEnglishphonemes.2.ThephonemetheoryPhoneme:unitsofexplicitsoundcontrast,builtontheideaofcontrastAllophones（音位变体）Phonemictranscription=“broad”transcription:Itonlyshowsthesoundsbyphonemes.e.g.peak/pi:k/,speak/spi:k/Phonemictranscriptionareplacedbetweenslantlines(//).Phonetictranscription=“narrow”transcriptione.g.peak[phi:k],speak[sp＝i:k]

[ph,p＝]aretwodifferentphones(音素)andarevariantsofthephoneme/p/.Suchvariantsofaphonemearecalledallophones（音位变体）ofthesamephoneme.Inthiscasetheallophonesaresaidtobeincomplementarydistribution(互补分布)becausetheyneveroccurinthesamecontext.AllophonesAllophony(音位变体现象):ThephenomenonofvariationinthepronunciationofphonemesindifferentpositionsFreevariants(自由变体):Apartfromcomplementarydistribution,aphonememaysometimeshavefreevariants.

Forexample,thefinalconsonantofcupmaynotbereleasedbysomespeakerssothereisnoaudiblesoundattheendofthisword.Inthiscase,itisthesamewordpronouncedintwodifferentways(seepage59).Thedifferencemaybecausedbydialect,habit,orindividualpreference,insteadofanydistributionrule.Freevariationisalsoseeninregionaldifferences.Either,directionPhonologicalprocesses（音位过程）1.Assimilation（同化）:aprocessbywhichonesoundtakesonsomeorallthecharacteristicsofaneighbouringsoundRegressiveassimilation(逆同化):AfollowingsoundisinfluencingaprecedingsoundProgressiveassimilation(顺同化):Aprecedingsoundisinfluencingafollowingsound2.PhonologicalprocessesandphonologicalrulesThreeaspectsofphonologicalprocess:1)asetofsoundstoundergotheprocess;2)asetofsoundsproducedbytheprocess;3)asetofsituationsinwhichtheprocessappliesPhonologicalprocessesAnarrowisusedtoindicatetheprocess.Phonologicalrule:/v/→[f]voicedfricative→voiceless/_________Voiceless(Avoicedfricativeistransformedintothecorrespondingvoicelesssoundwhenitappearsbeforeavoicelesssound.)NasalizationruleDentalizationruleVelarizationruleTheindefinitearticlea/aninEnglishEpenthesis(增音):theinsertionofsoundDistinctiveFeaturesSpeechsoundsaredividedintoclassesaccordingtoanumberofproperties.Oneimportantpropertyisvoicing,whichplaysanimportantpartindistinguishingobstruents（阻塞音）inEnglish.Becausevoicingcandistinguishonephonemefromanother,itisadistinctivefeatureforEnglishobstruents.Thereareotherfeaturestooandmanyofthemarebinaryfeatures(二分特征)becausewecangroupthemintotwocategories:onewiththisfeatureandtheotherwithout.(±voiced,±nasal)Obstruents:stops,fricatives,affricatesSonorants:allotherconsonantsandvowelsSeeTable2.5onPage67.SyllablesSuprasegmentalfeatures(超音段特征):thoseaspectsofspeechthatinvolvemorethansinglesoundsegments(syllable/stress/tone/intonation)Linearapproach(线性方法)Treediagram(树形图)Non-linear,Multi-levelphonology(非线性，多层次音系学)Thesyllablestructure:Differentlanguageshasdifferentkindsofsyllables.InChinese,syllablestypicallyconsistofaconsonantfollowedbyavowel.InEnglish,awordmaybemonosyllabic(单音节)(withonesyllable)andpolysyllabic(多音节)(withmorethanonesyllable).SyllablesAsyllablemusthaveanucleus(核心)orpeak(峰),whichisoftenthetaskofavowel.Wecandivideasyllableintotwoparts,therhyme(韵基)andtheonset(节首).Thevowelwithintherhymeisthenucleus（核心）,theconsonant(s)afteritwillbetermedthecoda(韵尾).SeethetreediagramonPage69.Allsyllablesmusthaveanucleusbutnotallsyllablescontainanonsetandacoda.Asyllablethathasnocodaiscalledanopensyllable(开音节)whileasyllablewithcodaisknownasclosedsyllable(闭音节).Onlytensevowels(longvowelsanddiphthongs)canoccurinopensyllables.SyllablesSonorityscale(响音阶):Thedegreeofsonorityofdifferentclassesofsoundaffectstheirpossiblepositionsinthesyllable.Sonorityscale:Frommostsonoroustoleastsonorous:Vowels,Approximants,Nasals,Fricatives,StopsStressStress:thedegreeofforceusedinproducingasyllable.Araisedverticallineisusedtoindicatestress.Stressed/unstressedsyllablesStressed:moreprominentduetoanincreaseinloudness,lengthorpitch.Stressisarelativenotion.Stressatthewordlevelandsentencelevel.Stressmaychangeoverhistoryandexhibitregionalordialectaldifferences.integral,formidable,controversy/laboratory,garageStressissometimesplacedonadifferentsyllableforthedifferentgrammaticalfunctionawordplays.Convict,insult,produce,rebelStressAlternationsofstressoftenoccurbetweencompoundsandphrases.Blackboard,blackbirdThereareprimaryandsecondarystressforlongwords.EpiphenomenalIngeneralsituationsnotionalwordsarenormallystressedwhilestructuralwordsareunstressed.Sentencestressisoftenusedtoexpressemphasis,surpriseetc.,sothatinprinciplestressmayfallonanywordoranysyllable.Johnboughtaredbicycle.英语语言学概论课程课件Chapter3LexiconPurposeofteaching:Makestudentsfamiliarwiththedefinitionsof“word”,theformationofwordsandthechangesofwordFocalpointsofteaching:HowwordsareformedandhowwordsmaychangeWhatiswordWord:aunitofexpressionthathasuniversalintuitiverecognitionbynative-speakers,whetherspokenorwrittenThreesensesof“word”:Aphysicallydefinableunit:Wordmaybeseenasaclusterofsoundsegmentsorlettersbetweentowpausesorblanks.Phonologicalandorthographic(书写上)Problem:Whenliaisonandcontractedformoccur2)Thecommonfactorunderlyingasetofforms:boy,boys;check,checks,checked,checkingLexeme(词位):theabstractunitunderlyingthesmallestunitinthelexicalsystemofalanguage,whichappearsindifferentgrammaticalcontextsWhatiswordWritewrite,writes,wrote,writing,writtenFatfat,fatter,fattest3)Agrammaticalunit:sentence—clause—wordgroup/phrase—word—morphemeProblem:freemorphemesorwords:black,bird,air,craft,town,hallIdentificationofwords:Stability:theconstituentpartsofacomplexwordcannotberearrangedchairman﹡manchairThechairmanlookedattheaudience./Theaudiencelookedatthechairman.2)Relativeuninterruptibility:Newelementscannotbeinsertedintoawordevenwhenthereareseveralpartsinaword.Identificationofwordsdisappointmentdis+appoint+mentPaul,(Jane)andRebeccaaremyclassmates.3)Aminimumfreeform:firstsuggestedbyLeonardBloomfiledSentencethemaximumfreeformWordtheminimumfreeform,thesmallestunitthatcanconstitute,byitself,acompleteutterance.e.g.IsJanecomingthisevening?

Possibly.Hi,Darling,ShitDispute:Notallword-likeunitswouldsatisfythiscriteriona,theWhatismissinginasentencesuchas‘Dogisbarking’?

A.ClassificationofwordsVariableandinvariablewordsVariablewords:Onecouldfindorderedandregularseriesofgrammaticallydifferentwordforms;ontheotherhand,partofthewordremainsconstantfollow,follows,following,followed;mat,matsInvariablewords:thosewordssuchassince,when,seldom,through,hello.Theydonothaveinflectiveendings.2)GrammaticalwordsandlexicalwordsGrammaticalwords:expressgrammaticalmeanings,suchasconjunctions,prepositions,articles,pronounsClassificationofwordsLexicalwords:havelexicalmeanings,thosewhichrefertosubstance,actionandquality,suchasnouns,verbs,adjectives,andadverbs.Thelexicalwordscarrythemaincontentofalanguage(contentwords)andthegrammaticalwordsservetolinkthedifferentpartsofasentencetogether(functionwords).3)Closed-classwordsandopen-classwords:Grammaticallexicalwords/closed-classopen-classwordsClosed-class:awordwhosemembershipisfixedorlimited.Newmembersarenotregularlyadded.Pronouns,prepositions,conjunctions,articles,etc.ClassificationofwordsOpen-class:Awordwhosemembershipisinprincipleinfiniteorunlimited.Nouns,verbs,adjectives,adverbsNote:Thedistinctionisnotquiteasclear-cutasitseems.Prepositions:regarding,throughout,outof,accordingto,withregardto,inspiteof,bemeansofAuxiliaryverbs4)Wordclass:ItisclosetothenotionofPartsofSpeechintraditionalgrammar.Eightorninewordclassesareestablished:noun,pronoun,adjective,verb,adverb,preposition,conjunction,interjection,article.ClassificationofwordsSomenewcategories:Particles(助词):theinfinitemarker(to),thenegativemarker(not),thesubordinateunitsinphrasalverbs(getby,doup,lookback)b.Auxiliaries(助动词):usedtoberegardedasverbs,linguiststendtodefinethemasaseparatewordclass.Thedifferencebetweenaverbandanauxiliary,seeexamplesonPage82.c.Pro-form(代词形式):referstotheclosedsetsofitemswhichcanbeusedtosubstituteforanominalgroup(名词词组)orasinglenoun.Pro-adjective:Yourpenisred.Soismine.Pro-verb:HeknowsEnglishbetterthanhedid.

ClassificationofwordsPro-adverb:Hehopeshe’llwinandIhopesotoo.Pro-locative(代处所词):Jame’shidingthere,behindthedoor.d.Determiners(限定词):wordswhichareusedbeforethenounactingasheadofanounphrase,anddeterminethekindofreferencethenounphrasehas,e.g.the,a(n),some,allQuirk,etal.(1985:253):threesubclassesofdeterminers:Predeterminers:all,both,half,double,twice,threetimes,one-third,one-fifthCentraldeterminers:a,an,the,this,that,these,those,every,each,some,any,no,either,neither,my,our,your,his,her,its,theirClassificationofwordsPostdeterminers:cardinalnumerals(基数词),ordinalnumerals(序数词),generalordinals(一般顺序词):next,last,past,(an)other,additionalandotherquantifierslikemany,afew,several,much,little,alotof,plentyof,agreatdealof,agreatnumberofWhendifferentsub-classesofdeterminersoccurtogether,theyfollowtheorderofpredeterminers+centraldeterminers+postdeterminers.﹡theiralltrouble,alltheirtroubleWithineachsubclass,themembersareusuallyexclusiveofeachother.﹡thethisboy,﹡allbothgirls.Butordinalnumeralsandgeneralordinalsmayoccurbeforecardinalnumerals,thefirsttwodays,anotherthreeweeksTheformationofwordMorpheme(语素)andmorphology(形态学)Chairman:chair,manTownhall:town,hallBoys:boy,-sChecking:check,-ingDisappointment:dis-,appoint,-mentThecomponentsofawordareknownasmorphemes.Theythemselvescannotbefurtheranalyzed.Morpheme:thesmallestunitoflanguageintermsofrelationshipbetweenexpressionandcontent,aunitthatcannotbedividedintofurthersmallerunitswithoutdestroyingordrasticallyalteringthemeaning,whetheritislexicalorgrammatical.Morphologystudiestheinternalstructureofwords,andtherulesbywhichwordsareformed.Typesofmorphemes1)Freemorphemeandboundmorpheme(自由语素和黏着语素)IntermsoftheircapacityofoccurringaloneFreemorphemes:thosewhichmayoccuralone,i.e.thosewhichmayconstitutewordsbythemselvesdog,nation,closeAllmonomorphemicwordsarefreemorphemes.Compounds:polymorphemicwordswhichconsistwhollyoffreemorphemes,paymaster,moonwalk,babysit,godfather,sunflowerBoundmorphemes:thosewhichcannotoccuralonedistempered:dis-,temper,-edTypesofmorphemes2)Root,affixandstem(词根、词缀和词干)Poly-morphemicwordsmaybedividedintorootsandaffixes.Arootisthebaseformofawordthatcannotfurtherbeanalyzedwithouttotallossofidentity.InternationalismAllwordscontainarootmorpheme.Anaffixisthecollectivetermforthetypeofformativethatcanbeusedonlywhenaddedtoanothermorpheme(therootorstem).Affixesarelimitedinnumberinalanguage,andaregenerallyclassifiedintothreesubtypes,prefix(前缀),suffix(后缀),andinfix(中缀).TypesofmorphemesPrefix:para-,mini-un-Suffix:-ise,-tionInfix:foot/feet,goose/geeseArootmaybefreeorbound,butanaffixisnaturallybound.Freerootmorphemesarethosethatcanstandbythemselvesandarethebaseformsofwords,e.g.black(black,blackbird,blackboard,blacksmith)Freerootmorphemesarepotentiallyunlimitedinnumberinalanguage.TherearerelativelyfewboundrootmorphemesinEnglish,e.g.–ceive(receive,perceive,conceive);-mit(remit,permit,commit,submit)TypesofmorphemesAfewEnglishrootsmayhavebothfreeandboundvariants.SleepandchildsleptandchildrenAstemisanymorphemeorcombinationofmorphemestowhichaninflectionalaffix(屈折词缀)canbeadded.Friend-infriends,andfriendshipinfriendships3)Inflectionalaffixandderivationalaffix(屈折词缀和派生词缀)Inflectionalaffixesaddaminuteordelicategrammaticalmeaningtothestem,toys,walks,John’s.Theyservetoproducedifferentformsofasingleword.TypesofmorphemesIncontrastderivationalaffixesoftenchangethelexicalmeaning,e.g.cite,citation;generate,generationInflectionalaffixesdonotchangethewordclassofthewordtheyattachto,suchasflower,flowers,whereasderivationalaffixesmightormightnot,suchassmall-smallness,brother-brotherhood.Inflectionalaffixesareconditionedbynonsemanticlinguisticfactorsoutsidethewordtheyattachtobutwithinthephraseorsentence,e.g.Theboylikestonavigateontheinternet.Derivationalaffixesaremoreoftenbasedonsimplemeaningdistinctions.Clever,clevernessTypesofmorphemesInflectionalaffixesaremostlysuffixes,whicharealwayswordfinal(drums,walks,Mary’s).Butderivationalaffixescanbeprefixes(depart,online)orsuffixes(teacher,workable)Inflectionandwordformation(屈折变化和词的形成)Twofieldsmorphology(形态学)concerns:thestudyofinflections;thestudyofwordformation1)Inflection:themanifestationofgrammaticalrelationshipsthroughtheadditionofinflectionalaffixes,suchasnumber,person,finiteness(有定性),aspect(体)andcase（格),whichdonotchangethegrammaticalclassofthestemstowhichtheyareattached.2)Wordformation:theprocessofwordvariationssignallinglexicalrelationshipsInflectionandwordformation(屈折变化和词的形成)A.Compound:thosewordsthatconsistofmorethanonelexicalmorpheme,thewaytojointwoseparatewordstoproduceasingleformNouncompounds,verbcompounds,adjectivecompounds,prepositioncompoundsTheendocentriccompound(向心复合词)andtheexocentriccompound(离心复合词)Theheadofanominaloradjectivalendocentriccompoundisdeverbal,thatisitisderivedfromaverb.Thefirstmemberisaparticipantoftheprocessverb.SeeexamplesonPage90.Inflectionandwordformation(屈折变化和词的形成)TheexocentricnominalcompoundsareformedbyV+N,V+A,andV+P,exocentricadjectivescomefromV+NandV+A.SeeexamplesonPage90.Differencebetweenendocentricandexocentriccompounds:Endocentric:Bloomfoled’stermforaconstructioninwhichatleastoneelementisofthesamesyntacticclassasthewhole.E.g.thatofrawmeat,whoseroleinlargerconstructionsislikethatofitssecondelementmeat;alsothatofmeatandfish,whoserolecouldbefilledbyeithermeatorfish.Alsousedofcompounds:e.g.blackbirdisendocentricsinceitisahyponymofbird,whileblackcap(anotherspeciesofsongbird)isnot,sinceitisnotahyponymofcap.Inflectionandwordformation(屈折变化和词的形成)Exocentric:Bloomfield’stermforaconstructioninwhichnoelementisofthesamesyntacticclassasthewhole:e.g.thoseofinWashingtonorwrotebooks.Alsousedofcompounds:e.g.pickpocketandhardbackareexocentriccompoundssincetheyarenothyponymsofeitherpickorpocket,oreitherhardorback.Waysofwritingacompound:Compoundscanbewrittenasasingleword:wardrobe,bodyguard,seashore.Theycanalsobejoinedwithahyphen:wedding-ring,traffic-light,simple-minded.Somecanbewrittenwithordinaryspacesbetweenthetwoparts:washingmachine,trafficisland,counterrevolutionary.Inflectionandwordformation(屈折变化和词的形成)B.Derivation:Derivationshowstherelationbetweenrootsandaffixes.SeeexamplesonPage91.Derivationscanmakethewordclassoftheoriginaleitherchangedorunchanged.SeeexamplesonPage91and92.Formsderivedfromderivationarerelativelylargeandpotentiallyopen.SeeexamplesonPage92.InEnglishthereisusuallyoneproductiveinflectionalaffixperword,butmultiplederivationalaffixesareallowed.SeeexamplesonPa