语言学discourseanalysis语篇分析

语言学discourseanalysis语篇分析Chapter7DiscourseAnalysis

语篇分析Majorcontents

1.Discourseanddiscourseanalysis2.Informationstructure3.Cohesionandcoherence4.Discoursemarkers5.Conversationalanalysis6.Criticalanalysis1DiscourseandDiscourseAnalysisDiscourseLanguageabovethesentenceorabovetheclause.(Stubbs,1983:1)Textlinguistics/discourseanalysiswrittenspokenUsedinterchangeablynow1DiscourseandDiscourseAnalysisDiscourseanalysisDiscourselinguistics/discoursestudies/textanalysisThestudyofhowsentencesinspokenandwrittenlanguageformlargermeaningfulunitssuchasparagraphs,conversations,interviews,etc.p1681DiscourseandDiscourseAnalysisLanguageinusePragmatics:meaningDiscourseanalysis:informationstructureMostpowerfulinstrument:FunctionalSystemicGrammar1DiscourseandDiscourseAnalysisFertilizersputbackwhattherainandplantstakeaway.Plasticpotsarenotjustsubstitutesforclayones.Pearsarealittlemoretemperamentalthanapples.Supportingandtrainingarenotquitethesamething.

×1DiscourseandDiscourseAnalysisPickupahandfulofsoilinyourgarden.Ordinary,unexcitingearth.YetitisoneofNature’smiracles,andoneofhermostcomplexproducts.Yoursuccessasagardenerwilllargelydependuponitscondition,sotakethefirstboldstepingardening---gettoknowyoursoil.

√1DiscourseandDiscourseAnalysisAprimarytaskofDAistoexplorethelinguisticfeatureswhichcharacterizediscourse.ThegoalofDAistoexaminehowreaderoruserofadiscourserecognizesthatpartsofadiscoursearedependentonothers.Oneofthemostimportantfeaturesofdiscourseiscohesion(衔接)1DiscourseandDiscourseAnalysisTopicsofDA:Informationstructure(信息结构)Cohesion(衔接)Coherence(连贯)Discoursemakers(话语标记语)Conversationalanalysis(会话分析)2InformationStructureHowdolanguageusersarrangeinformationwithindiscourse?2.1GivenandnewinformationAlice:Whoatethebread?Tom:Maryatethebread.Giveninformation:knowntotheaddresseeNewinformation:unknowntotheaddressee.2.1GivenandnewinformationGiveninformationcanbeintroducedbyonespeakeralone:Amancalledwhileyouwereonyourbreak.Hesaidhe’dcallbacklater.Giveninformationcanbesomethingcloselyrelatedtothementionedinformation(e.g.meronymy)（部分-整体关系）Kentreturnedmycarlastnightafterborrowingitfortheday.Oneofthewheelswasabouttofalloffandthedashboardwasmissing.2.1GivenandnewinformationFormsofN/Ginformation:New-informationcarriersusuallyreceivemorestress,andtheyarecommonlymoreelaborated,e.g.withafullnounphrase,relativeclauseoradjectivalmodifier(s).E.g.WhenIenteredtheroom,therewasatallmanwithanold-fashionedhaton,quiteelegantlydressed.2.1GivenandnewinformationGiveninformationisexpressedinshorterforms(pronouns/unstressednounphrase/omitted):A:Whoatetheapple?B:Marydid./Mary.2.2Topicandcomment

话题和述题Topic话题:whattheutteranceisabout.Comment述题:whatissaidaboutthetopic.Topicistheelementofasentencethatfunctionsasthecenterofattention.Topicisusuallythesubject,nounphrase.Maryatethebread.2.2TopicandcommentOtherelementscantaketheroletoo.Aftertea,willyoutellmeastory.MarkthetopicPlacetopicintheinitialpositioninEnglish.Abeautifuldressshedidmake.Topicisnotnecessarilyapropertyofthesentence;itmaybeapropertyofthediscoursecontext:Oh,look!2.2TopicandcommentTopic-commentvs.given-newinformationGiven-newinformation:thepointofviewofthelistener.Topic-commentrelatestothatofthespeaker.Thegivenelementisthatwhichthespeakerpresentsasalreadybeingknowntothelistener.Thetopicelementrepresentswhattheutteranceisabout.2.2TopicandcommentGiveninformationisnotalwaysthetopic.Maryatethebread.Asforherlittlesister,shedranktheCoca-Cola.new/topicPeterdidn’tbelieveanythingthecharlatansaid.AsforMary,shebelievedeverythinghesaid.given/comment2.2TopicandcommentTopic-commentvs.rheme-themeRheme-theme:sentenceTopic-comment:discourseRheme-theme:concretesentencestructure(linguisticform)Topic-comment:abstractinformationstructureMike'shousewassocomfortableandwarm!Hereallydidn'twanttoleave,buthecouldn'taffordtherent,youknow.Andithadsuchanicegardenintheback!2.2TopicandcommentTopicsarenotsoimportanttothegrammarofEnglish.ThereisonlyonegrammaticalstructurewhichmarkstopicsinEnglish.Asforme,I’mgonnagotobed.Otherlanguageshavespecialformstomarkthetopic(Japanese,Korean)Chinesemarkstopicsbywordorder:作业终于做完了！2.2TopicandcommentInEnglish,markingthetopicofasentenceisfarlessimportantthanmarkingthesubject.Therearespecialformstoindicatethesubject:Shelooksathim.2.3Contrast对比Contrast:anounphraseoccursinoppositiontoanothernounphraseinthediscourse.contrastiveA:DidTomseetheghost?B:No,Johndid.B:Yes,Tomsawtheghost.2.3Contrast对比Oneoutstandingfromalliscontrastedwiththewhole:Ofeveryonepresent,onlyPeterknewwhatwasgoingon.Adeleknewwhatwasgoingon,andPeterknewwhatwasgoingon.Contrastisalsomarkedinsentencesthatexpressthenarrowingdownofachoicefromseveralcandidatestoone.2.3Contrast对比Testforcontrast:Ifanounphrasecanbefollowedby“ratherthan”,itiscontrastive:A:DidTomseetheghost?B:No,John,ratherthanTom,sawtheghost.B:No,Tomseetheangle,ratherthantheghost.2.3Contrast对比Asinglesentencecanhaveseveralcontrastivenounphrases:A:DidTomseeaghost?B:Yes,Tomsawaghost,butJohnsawanentirecastofspirits.Contrastisobservedfromthediscoursecontextorsituationalcontext.MarylikesgoingtoMaineduringthewinter.2.3Contrast对比Employee:CanIleaveearlytoday?Manager:Idon’tmind.InEnglish,contrastivenounphrasecanbemarkedbypronouncingitwithstrongstress:Youmaybesmart,buthe’sgood-looking.3.CohesionandCoherence

衔接&连贯Howsentencesarecombinetoformtexts?It’spracticallyimpossibletorestrainchildrenwhentheygettogripswithtechnology.Whichiswhythecomputerequipmentusedinschoolshastobedesignedandbuildtoastandardaboveandbeyondthenormalcallofduty.Astandardthat’ssetbyResearchMachines.3.CohesionandCoherenceWhichiswhythecomputerequipmentusedinschoolshastobedesignedandbuilttoastandardaboveandbeyondthenormalcallofduty.It’spracticallyimpossibletorestrainchildrenwhentheygettogripswithtechnology.Astandardthat’ssetbyResearchMachines.3.CohesionandCoherence3.1Cohesion衔接Thegrammaticaland/orlexicalrelationshipsbetweenthedifferentelements(sentencesorsegments)ofadiscourse.Cohesivedevices衔接手段Acoherentdiscoursehascertainwordsandexpressionsinitwhichlinkthesentencestogether.Reference,substitution,ellipsis,conjunctionandlexicalcohesion.3.1CohesionAcoherentdiscoursearesentenceslinkedclosely.A:IsJanehere?B:No,sheisn’t.Youcanleadahorsetowaterbutyoucan’tmakehimdrink.Howsentencesareexplicitlylinkedtogetherinadiscourse?3.1.1Reference参照/照应Referencewords:pronouns(it,they..),demonstratives(this,that…),thedefinitearticle(the)anditemslikesuchas.e.g.Thereisahouseneartheriver.ThatisJohn’s.Ididn’tknowitwashis.3.1.1Reference参照/照应Twotypesofreference:endophora内参照:theinterpretivesourceliesintheco-text.exophora外参照:theinterpretivesourceliesinthecontext.e.g.(Maryisstandinghere)Ilikeher.Endophora(内参照):anaphora回指:thereferentliesinthepriortext.e.g.Lookatthedog,itisdancing!cataphora后指:thereferentliesinthefollowingtext.e.g.WhenImether,Marylookedill.Typesofreferenceanaphora回指endophoraReference内参照cataphora后指指称exophora外参照3.1.2Substitution替代Theprocessorresultofreplacingonewordbyanotherataparticularpositioninastructure.A:I’velostmydictionary.(substituted)B:Getanewone.(substitute)ThreetypesofsubstitutionNominalsubstitution(toreplaceanounornounphrase)Verbalsubstitution(toreplaceaverbphrase)Clausalsubstitution(toreplaceaclause)Referencevs.SubstitutionReferenceisarelationonsemanticlevel.Noun–pronoun/nounphraseJack–himAgroupofstudents–thosestudentsSubstitutionisarelationonthelexico-grammaticallevel,arelationbetweenwordsandconstructions,andtheyhavesamefunction.newwatch---newone.Referencevs.SubstitutionAsrelationbetweenmeanings,referencecanbeanaphoric,cataphoricandexophoric.Substitutionisarelationwithintext,themajorityofsubstitutionarehighlydependingonthelinguisticcontext,anditmainlyhappensinthelatertext.3.1.3Ellipsis省略Leavingoutaconstructionofasentenceforreasonsofeconomy,emphasisorstyle,andtheomittedpartscanonlyberecoveredbythereaderfromthepreviousdiscourse.SubstitutionbyzeroDoyoulikeit?No,Idon’t(likeit).Subtypes:Nominal,verbalandclausalellipsis3.1.4Conjunction连词Anitemoraprocesswhoseprimaryfunctionistoconnectwordsorotherconstruction.Iwasnotinvited.Otherwise,Iwouldhavebeenthere.coordinator并列连词(and,but…)subordinator从属连词(because,when)conjunctiveadverbs连接副词(however,indeed…)Ifyoudogood,goodwillbedonetoyou;butifyoudoevil,thesamewillbemeasuredbacktoyou.Therefore,let’sdogood.

Lexicalcohesioniscohesionthroughtheuseofwords,i.e.thewriterorspeakerrelatesthetextconsistentlytoitsareaoffocusthroughtheselectionoflexicalitems.repetition重复Threetypes:synonym同义词collocation上义词3.1.5Lexicalcohesion词汇衔接Repetition:repeatthesamewords,orgeneralnouns,orotherwordssharingthemajorityofsemanticfeatures.Thedonkeydied;thepoorcreaturehasworkedhardallhislife.Superodinate:thesameword,synonymornear-synonym,superordinate,generalwords,collocation.Iwatchedafootballgamelastnight,andbecameveryupsetwhentherefereepulledout3redcardsinaminute.Repetitionoflexicalitems.Arepeateditemmaybearepetitionofanearlieritem,asynonymornear-synonym,asuperordinate,orageneralword.

Thereisaboyplayingwithfire.Theboyisgoingtoburnhimselfifhedoesn’ttakecare.(repetition)Theladisgoingtoburnhimselfifhedoesn’ttakecare.(synonym)Thechildisgoingtoburnhimselfifhedoesn’ttakecare.(superordinate)Theidiotisgoingtoburnhimselfifhedoesn’ttakecare.(generalword)

Collocation搭配：thetendencyofcertainlexicalitemstoco-occur.AlittlefatmanofBombayWassmokingoneveryhotdayButabirdcalledasnipeFlewawaywithhispipeWhichvexed（生气的）thefatmanofBombay3.2Coherence连贯Interestinglyenough,theuseofcohesivedevicesalonemaynotproducetextsthat“makesense”.Considerthefollowingpassage:e.g.IboughtaFord.AcarinwhichPresidentWilsonrodedowntheChsElysees(香榭丽舍大街)wasBlack.BlackEnglishhasbeenwidelydiscussed.Thediscussionbetweenthepresidentsendedlastweek.Aweekhassevendays.EverydayIfeedmycat.Catshavefourlegs.Thecatisonthemat.Mathasthreeletters.从前有座山，山上有座庙，庙里有个老和尚，老和尚在和小和尚讲故事:从前有座山……Coherence:therelationshipswhichlinkthemeaningsofutterancesinadiscourseorofthesentencesintext.Itconcernspeople’sabilitytomatchthetextwiththeirexperienceortheirunderstandingoftheword.Ifastretchofalanguageisinlinewithsomeexperienceortheir“commonsense”,itwillberecognizedasameaningfultext.

Coherenceissthunderlyingthetext---semanticconnections,logicalconnectionsortemporalsequence.Itiscreatedbyourreallifeknowledge.Cohesionistheverbalrealizationofcoherenceintheformofcohesivedevices.Asweseeinthelastslepassage.(50)Student:I’velostmybunchofkeys!Roommate:It’safinedaytoday.Student:Soyou’vegotafreedinner.(p197)GeorgestudiedlawinCambridge.Andheisnowalawyer.GeorgestudiedlawinCambridge.Heisnowalawyer.Theabsenceoftheconjunctions“and”inthesecondsentencedoesnotaffectcoherenceatall.Weknowfromourexperiencethatbeingalawyerisalikelyoutcomeofstudyinglaw.Insummary,therecanbenomeaningcohesionwithoutcoherence,butcoherencewithoutcohesionmaybeperfectlypossible.7.4Discoursemarkers

话语标记语Whatisthedefinitionofdiscoursemarkers?Howmanytypesofdiscoursemarkerarethere?discoursemarkers(DM):expressionsthatarecommonlyusedintheinitialpositionofanutteranceandaresyntacticallydetachablefromasentence.conversationalparticles:well

andohparentheticallexicalizedclauses:y’know,Imeanandyousee,connectiveelementsso,afterall,andmoreover.Themainroleofdiscoursemarkers:toguidespeaker’sinterpretationsoftheutterances.ThefeaturesofDMs:DMsseemtoclarifyatext’sstructuralrelationsforthereader.Despiteanydifferencesintheiruseindifferenttypesofdiscourse,theseitemsshareanumberofformalandtextualfeatures.

7.5ConversationalanalysisTheanalysisofnaturalconversationinordertodiscoverwhatthelinguisticcharacteristicsofconversationareandhowconversationisusedinordinarylife

iscalledconversationalanalysis(CA).ThreemechanismsinCAadjacencypairs(相邻语对)preferencestructure(首选结构)presequences(前序列)Itincludesthestudyofhowspeakersdecidewhentospeakduringaconversation,howtheutterancesoftwoormorespeakersarerelated,andthedifferentfunctionsthatconversationisusedfor.7.5.1Adjacencypairs相邻语对Certainturnshavespecificfollow-upturns.Questionstakeanswers.Greetingsarereturnedbygreetings,invitationsbyacceptancesorrefusals,andsoon.Suchsequencesofturnsarecalledadjacencypairs:asequenceoftworelatedutterancesbytwodifferentspeakers.Thesecondutteranceisalwaysaresponsetothefirst.

(56)A:Youleftthelighton.B:Itwasn’tme!thesequenceofcomplaint-denialisanadjacencypair.Adjacencypairshavefiveproperties:Adjacencypairsconsistoftwoutterances,afirstpartandasecondpart.Thetwopartsarespokenbydifferentspeakers.Thefirstandsecondpartsbelongtospecifictypes,forexle,questionandanswer,orgreetingandgreeting.Theformandcontentofthesecondpartdependsonthetypeofthefirstpart.Giventhataspeakerhasproducedafirstpart,thesecondpartisrelevantand expectableasthenextutterance.Adjacencypairscomeinmanytypesquestion-answergreeting-greetinginvitation-acceptance/non-acceptanceoffer-acceptance/non-acceptancecomplaint-apology/denialsummons传唤-responseassertion-assent赞成request-acceptancepromise-acknowledgementthanks-acknowledgementgoodbye-goodbye.

However,notallfirstpartsimmediatelyreceivetheirsecondparts.Itoftenhappensthataquestion-answer(Q-A)sequencewillbedelayedwhileanotherquestion-answersequenceintervenes.ThesequencewillthentaketheformofQ1-Q2-A2-A1,withthemiddlepair(Q2-A2)beingcalledaninsertionsequence插入语列.(57)Agent:Doyouwanttheearlyflight! (=Q1)Client:Whattimedoesitarrive? (=Q2)Agent:Nineforty-five. (=A2)Client:Yeah—that’sgreat. (=A1)Aninsertionsequenceisoneadjacencypairwithinanother.Inprinciple,thenumberofinsertionsequencescanbeinfinite,butthelimitofhumanmemorydoesnotallowthat.Threeorfourinsertionsequencesarecommon.(58)A:AreyoucomingtoourpartyTuesdayevening? (Q1)B:CanIbringafriendalong? (Q2)A:Maleorfemale?(Q3)B:Whatdoesthatmatter? (Q4)A:Justamatterofbalance. (A4)B:Male. (A3)A:Okey. (A2)B:I’llbetherethen. (A1)Ex:1)Son:CanIwatchTV,Dad?Father:Haveyoufinishedyourhomework?Son:No.Father:Thenyoucan’t.Inthisexle,thefatherdelayshisanswertohisson’squestionuntilhehascheckedifthenecessaryconditionexists.2)A:Couldyoulendmeafewbucks?

B:Whatfor?

A:IneedtotakeatriptoSanFranciscotoseemygirlfriend.B:Howmuchdoyouwant?A:Well…uh…50dollarsisok.B:Whenareyougonnareturn?

A:NextMonday.B:Allright.Waitforme.I’llberightback.7.5.2Preferencestructure

首选结构Anadjacencypairmayhavedifferentsecondparts.Forexle,aquestioncanbefollowedbya)aquestion,b)byapartialanswer,c)byastatementofignorance,d)byadenialoftherelevanceofthequestionore)byadenialofitspresupposition:(59)A:WhatdoesJoedoforaliving?B:a.Doyouneedtoknow?b.Oh,thisandthat.c.I’venoidea.d.What’sthatgottodowithit?e.Hedoesn’t.Preferencestructuredividessecondpartsintopreferredanddispreferred.Thepreferredisthestructurallyexpectednextactandthedispreferredisthestructurallyunexpectednextact.Thepreferredsecondpartsaremoreusual,morenormalandlessspecific.(60)A:Haveyougotalight?B:Yes.(61)A:Haveyougotalight?B:No,sorry.Idon’tsmoke.B’sreplyin(60)ispreferredanddispreferredin(61):

7.5.3Presequences前序列(63)Jeff:Mornin’,Stan!Stan:Hi.How’sitgoin’?Jeff:Oh,can’tcomplain,Iguess.Readyforthemeetingthisafternoon? Stan:Well,Idon’thavemuchchoice! Greetingsexemplifyopeningsequences,utterancesthateasepeopleintoaconversation.Theyconveythemessage“Iwanttotalktoyou”.Theopeningsequencesthatareusedtosetupsomespecificpotentialactionsarecalledpresequences.Greetingsareusuallyreservedforacquaintanceswhohavenotseeneachotherforawhile,oraspresequen