说明综合5117 w3 toxriskassn by dr作者

CleanHabitatCleanHabitatandWater3EnvironmentalRisk4EnvironmentalRisk4EnvironmentalRiskAirEnvironmentalRiskAirPoor&5EnvironmentalRiskFeedEnvironmentalRiskFeedPlantpests/plant6EnvironmentalRiskEnvironmentalRisk7EcologicalRiskEcologicalRisk•Toestimatelikelihoodthatadverseecologicaleffectsmayoccurasaresultofexposuretooneormoreenvironmentalstressors(EPA1992a).–e.g.chemical(soil,water),landchanges,diseases,invasivespeciesandclimate8EcologicalRiskEcologicalRisk•WefaceQsaboutenvironmentRelatingplants,animals,ecosystems,andhowweinteractwiththem.Aboutpotentialrisksi.e.impactsontheaestheticvalueofaplaceduetophysicalalternations,effectsofpollutionsonendangeredspecies,orconsequentlyoflong-termreleaseofcontaminantstoecosystem.9Examples–EcologicalExamples–Ecological•Constructionsofdam:fishpopulations,landreclamations(HK)Insecticide:endangeringbirds,Contaminantsfromabandonedindustrialsites;minesreducetheuseofnearbyareasFertilizersrunoffreduceO2inwaterbodiesSomeplants/animalssusceptibletoenvironment.Stressorsb/oage,genetics,size,speciesdifference.••••WhatisEPAEPAWhatisEPAEPAEnvironmentalProtectionAgency（環境保護局Tounderstandthepotentialeffectsofstressors(described)andmanagingriskfromthemsoastoprotecttheHealthofnaturalenvironment,thenaturalresourcesthatpeoplerelyon.TodevelopRAguidelines,basedonrecommendationsfromtheNationalAcademyofSciencetohelpguideEPAscientistsinassessingrisksfromchemicalandotherenvironmentalstressors.Toprovidepolicyguidanceandthelatestscientificinformationtohelpstatesandorganizationstoadoptstandards(egWaterQuality)Alsotoprovideextensiveguidance,policyrecommendationsandtechnicalassistancetoimportantsubjectofconcern(e.g.drinkingEPA–ConceptualEPA–ConceptualPlanning&ScopingPhase2:Phase1:PhaseRiskRiskEstimationRiskDescriptionCriticalPhasesforRiskAssessmentProcessPhase2-Phase1-Problem•Chararacterisationof•TheproblemischaracterizedintermsCriticalPhasesforRiskAssessmentProcessPhase2-Phase1-Problem•Chararacterisationof•Theproblemischaracterizedintermsofexposure&effects(e.g.type,intensity,duration,frequency,timing,scale…)Evaluateexistingdataofecologicaleffects,Setend-points,consideringecologicalrelevance,policygoalsandsocietalvalues,DevelopaConceptualMode&WorkingHypothesisonhowthestressormightaffecttheecologicalcomponent.–MeasureandidentifythespatialandtemporaldistributionofstressorAnalyzethepotentialDevelopanexposure––•••Chara’tionofEcological––EvaluatetherelevantIdentifyandquantitytheadverseeffectsfromthestressors,andmakeacause-and-effectrelationshipDevelopastressor-response(effect)profile-DRA•–CriticalPhasesforRiskAssessmentProcessEnd-Phase3–Risk•MostCriticalPhasesforRiskAssessmentProcessEnd-Phase3–Risk•MostcommonendpointintoxicityisIsaquantitativemeasureofthenumberoftestorganismfounddeadorsurviveateachconcentrationismeasurecomparedwithcontrols.Otherend-••EstimatetheIntegratethestressor-responseandExposureprofilesIndentifyuncertaintyinanalysesDescribetheriskSummarizetheriskInterprettheecologicalPavethewayforscience-basedriskmanagementdecision.••••••–Sub-lethalorbehavioral(movement,Functional(organiccarbonutilizationortransformation,nitrogenTissuemeasure––•–WhytodoWhytodoRiskAssessment•AnactiontoprovideanswerstoQuestionsWhat’stherisktochildren’shealthofdrinkingwaterthatcontains3ppbAtrazine?What’stheriskifIeatmeatthatcontains1ppmofHowmuchDioxincanbesafelyleftinthesoilaftertheclean-upofahazardouswastesite?WhatshouldbethestandardofpesticideallowedinWhentodoRiskAssessmentWhentodoRiskAssessment•IsthereanexposuretochemicalorYes–focusonchemicalsthataremosttoxicorhavehighestexposure,e.g.Pesticide;FoodadditivesRiskassessmentisNeverPrecise•itonlycompensatesforalackofDecisionItisaset•Twocategories:CancerorNon-cancerNon-CancerRiskNon-CancerRiskHazardAssessment:whyisthesubstanceconsideredahazard?CalculateexposuretotheDose-responseassessment:whatdosesaretoxictolabanimals?Riskcharacterisation:takesintoalltheinformationasaboveandcalculateasafelimitforhumanexposureCancerRiskHazardIdentificationforCancerRiskHazardIdentificationforpossible–Whyisitsuspectedtobea••••Labanimalstudy?Epidemiologicalstudy?IsitproducedinlargeArelargenumbersofpeopleexposedtoExposure–Dothesamewayasnon-Aftermath-RiskAftermath-RiskGovernmentCleanWaterAct,EmissionTradingNon-Regulatory•••ThrougheducationtopublicGovernment-IndustryPartnership1150UScompaniesvoluntarilyreducedemissionsof17chemicalsby50%PollutantPrevention$DevelopsaferDevelopsaferproducte.g.hybridcars,LED•••Risk•••VoluntaryRisk•••VoluntaryactionsbyNGOs(GreenPeace…)ResearchsupportbyindustryInformationasRisk-management•500UScompaniesevaluating2800highriskproductionchemicalsUS,Japan,EU:evaluating87,000chemicalsincommercialproduction•RiskManagementsRiskManagementsforReducingrisktoDeterminetolerancelevelsofpesticideresidueevenfornon-cancereffectsEPAcitingrisktofetus–mercuryemissionsofcoalburningplantsCompaniesvoluntarilyevaluatingchemicalschildrenwillmostexposetoRiskManagementsReducingRiskManagementsReducingrisksto•••EffectofDDTinthinningofbirds’eggsAcidrainaffectsaquaticlifeandforestsCFCcausesOzonehole(MontrealProtocolonSubstancesthatDepletetheOzoneLayer,1Jan1989………)Nutrients(N/N2,PO3,K),algalbloom,anoxiaPollutedrun-ofandindustrialdischargesEffluentstobetestedfortoxinforaquaticlife,hazardouswastesite(dumps)tobecleaneduplimitingexposuretosurroundingwifelifeImplementing••••Dioxins–ImportantEnvironmental••1,4-DioxinorpDioxins–ImportantEnvironmental••1,4-Dioxinorp-Veryunstableduetoperoxide-likecharacteristics,colourlessliquid,highlyflammable.Dioxinismostcommonlyusedforafamilyofderivativesofdioxin,knownaspolychlorinateddibenzodioxins(PCDDs).Dioxins-extremelyimportantEnvironmentalPollutantsamongwhich2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzodioxin(TCDD),atetrachlorinatedderivative,isthebestknown.PCDDsareformedthroughcombustion,chlorinemfgprocesses.Heatandchlorinecreates•••ChlorineisoftenapartoftheEarth'senvironment,naturalecologicalactivitylikevolcanicactivityandforestfirescanleadtotheformationofPCDDs.Toxicity:(ExposureCaseofAgentOrangesprayingovervegetationduringVietnam•beenshowntobioaccumulationinhumansandwildlifeduetotheirlipophilicproperties,andareknownteratogens,mutagens,andcarcinogens.Terriblytoxic:100xpotassiumcyanide,10,000,000xDioxins&Dioxins&TheUseofTheUseof“ForProperProcessofPCBs”In:MinistryofEnvironmente.g.Riske.g.RiskAssessment-e.g.RiskAssessmente.g.RiskAssessment-RiskAssessment-RiskAssessment-CancerPotencyPotency2,3,7,8–TCDD100CancerPotencyPotency2,3,7,8–TCDD100CancerEpidemicCancerEpidemic-12POPsunderStockholmWhat12POPsunderStockholmWhatistheStockholmseekstoeliminateorrestricttheproductionandtheuseofallint’allyproducedPOPs.UndertheConvention,12substancesarenowlistedinadditiontoPCBs,includingdioxinandpesticides,suchasDDT..etcIntergovernmentalnegotiationsgotunderwayin1998,andfinallyinDecember2000,inJohannesburg.InMay2001,theConventionwasadoptedinStockholm.CountriesthathaveratifiedtheconventionmustphaseoutPCBusebeforeWaste•Wastedumpsitesarecontributabletomostenvironmentalpollutionsinmostcountries,e.g.HK,ChinaandIndia.ThecompositionWaste•Wastedumpsitesarecontributabletomostenvironmentalpollutionsinmostcountries,e.g.HK,ChinaandIndia.Thecompositionofwaste*isquitevariabledependinguponthegeneratingsourceandmodeofcollection.Mostfromdomesticwasteswhichareorganicinnature,containingessentiallyplantnutrients;whereasthedumpingmaterialfromcommercialandindustrialwastescontainsappreciableleamountsofheavyandpotentiallytoxicmetalsandorganicpollutants.••62-65%ofmineralparticlesandbiodegradableorganicwaste,20-25%ofconstruction&demolitionwaste,10-15%ofmaterialssuchasplastic,metals,glassandtimber,withsomeamountofpolyethene(5-6%)Plantnutrients(P,K,S)are4-Metals:As,Ba,Cd,Cr,Cu,Ni,Pb&Znpresentinall•Theuseofwastematerialforfertilizingpurposesmayberestrictedduetometal*3dumpingsitesintheStateofHaryana,DumpingsiteinBeijing-•DumpingsiteinBeijing-•BasedonJapanesefindings,80%dioxinsaregeneratedbyincinerators.•TherewasastrikeinChaoYangDistrict朝陽區,Beijingon30Aug2008theOlympicYear,forprotestingagainstthefrequentstingingsmellscomingfromalargewastetreatmentplantnearby.Levelhigherthannormal(40x)ofdioxinswereproducedaftergarbageincinerations.DumpingSiteinTseungKwanO–HongKongBeenobservedDumpingSiteinTseungKwanO–HongKongBeenobservedthatofthe151daysmonitoringexercises,81dayshavebeengivingstingingsmells,a52%25and22daysofsmellgenerationsforJuly&August大眾網-14Jan2014Ambient&TrafficAirToxicityCaseAmbient&TrafficAirToxicityCaseStudyPregnantwomenexposedtopollutedairgeneratedbymotorcaremissionduringtheearlygestation(firsttwomonths)willhaveincreasedchanceofbabiesbornwithcongenitalanomalies:Datacollectedfrom8regionsinCAL(SanJoaquinValley)forairsamplescontainingNO2,NO,COandPM2.5-10andfromtherecordofdeformedbabiessince1997.Researchercompared840deformedbirthswith853normal.Findingsindicatedthatwomenlivinginthe(1stquartile)highestNOandCOenvironmentswillstand2-foldincreaseingivingbirthofneuraltubecongenitalanomalies.*Padulaetal:Am.J.Epidemiol.March28,CaseFindingfrom14centreof9•Incidentally,a2013findingreportedthatmaternalexposuretoairpollutionwillhaveadverseeffectonfetalgrowth,i.e.lowbirthAirPollutions-AirPollutions-That1.02millionpeoplediedofambientairpollutionsprematurely,amountingto40%ofworlddeathcases.Environmentalparticlesisthe4thkillerinChinaafterdiets,highb.p.&cigarettesmoking.Worldwise:the7thdeathaetiology,causingthelivesof3.20millionpeople.In2050,airpollutionwillbetheNo.1killer.Asurveyof1980-2010indicatedtheincreaseofNdepositioninlinewithhumanNreleaseindailylife.NorthChinahasexceededNorthAmerica,beingequaltothepeaklevelof80sinWestEurope.Causes:chemicalfertilizers,farmfaeces,coalburning,traffic2010:GlobalBurdenofDiseaseStudyinLancetCoalBurning–CoalBurning–WorseninginChinasufferedtheworldheaviestPM2.5pollution,adirectresultofitsover-relianceonCoal.In2009Chinaburns50%oftheworldcoalandcoalaccountsnearly70%inChina’senergymix.GlobalPMGlobalPM2.5GlobalHumanActivities-startsGlobalHumanActivities-startsfrom1960s.DuringWWII&GreatDepression,pollutedair↓andGW↓1990sduetoMontrealProtocoltookeffectanduseofCFCbandedCO2-AntarctictemperaturebeginstoriseastheconcentrationofatmosphericCO2↑sincelastdeglacialwarming.(March,2013)Temp.Extremes(PIK)–↑pollutedairemissionsfromusingpetrol-chemicalfuelsrepeatedlydisturbedthepatternsofatmosphericflowaroundtheNorthernhemispherethroughasubtleresonancemechanism.E.g.severeheatwavesinrecentyears,2003inEurope,2011inUSA,theoneinRussia2010coincidingwiththeunprecedentedPakistanflood.(Feb,2013)RisingOceanAcidity(↓pH0.1-0.5)–↑atmosphericCO2causedacidificationofocean,thereby↓planktonswhichisthesourceforatmosphericdimethylsulphidewhichreactswithH2SO4formingaerosolandairdusts,thusreducingcloudformation.(byJamesLovelock,1980s)OzoneDepletion–thatisobvioussinceIncreaseinhumanDecreaseinworkproductivity(NOAA)–by10%inthepast60years,2050willbeSealevelrise–riseofsealevel(2050)by37.8cm(1990)cause1.2MpeoplemigratinginAsia,worseisChinacausingdrasticeconomiclossofU$53billion.PIK=PotsdamInstituteforClimateImpactResearch,GermanNOAA=NationalOceanic&AtmosphericAdministration,USANASA从太空NASA从太空拍摄雾霾笼罩下的中EverlastingSmogEverlastingSmogSmogHittingSmogHittingAirPollutions-•Atveryseverelevel2013:25provinceshavebeenaffectedbysmogswithaverage11-30days,arecordin52years.ArguedthattheAirPollutions-•Atveryseverelevel2013:25provinceshavebeenaffectedbysmogswithaverage11-30days,arecordin52years.ArguedthatthesmogofChinahascovered1.4millionsquaremiles,and800millionpeoplebeenaffected.Beijing-January,2013:25daysunderheavyAccordingtoNSZhong鐘南山院士in•••everyincreaseof10µg/m³,thereisanincreasein3.1%respiratorypatientsinhospitalisation.Iftheparticulatesareincreasedfrom25to100µgaveragedailydeathwillbeincreasedby11%.HeavyPM2.5levelnotonlyaffectsrespiratorysystem,butalsocardiovascular,cerebralcirculationandnervoussystems.InBeijing,lungcancershavebeenincreased60%over10•2010:amongthosewhodiedoflungcancers223,000peoplewereduetoairpollutionsNewFindings–useofStatinsmayreliefpulmonarydiseasesdue•pollutedAirPollutions-Basedonreportdated31Dec2013,theoriginofPMAirPollutions-Basedonreportdated31Dec2013,theoriginofPM2.5severityinBeijingamongotherfactors,wasduetogarbageburningandtrafficmotorsmokeswhichcontributeto26%,ofwhichNOcompoundsandVOShasshared42%andthetrafficsmokesshared32%.BeijingMayorhasproclaimedinMarch,2013thatthegovernmentwill¥100Billioninimprovingrefusedumping,sewagetreatmentandforestbuildinginplainsinMunicipality.AreportedconductedbyscientistsfromChina,USandUKinearly2014demonstratedthatthesmogsofBeijinghasaffectedthewesterncostsofUSA(CA,Washingtonetc.).ThesmogcontentbasicallycontainsCO(22%)andblackshoots(17%).TheblackshootscomefromindustrialwasteairsfromTV,toyandhand-phonesmanufacturing.Beenreportedthatin2011Chinahasshared10.48%worldGDPforwhich60%cements,49%steelsand21%energyoftheworldoutputshavebeenconsumed.Air-pollutionisperhapsthepriceforbeingaworld-factory.UKin1956haspromulgatedtheworld’sfirstlawonaircontrol,the“CleanAirAct”(afteratragedyoccurredinDec,1952when12,000peoplediedofrespiratoryOverloadedPM2.5inOverloadedPM2.5inChina•PM2.5inmajorcitiesasof11Jan,2013:BeijingWuHanShijiazhuangChengdeTianjinTheEPinChinahasnotmadeanyprogresssincethepast10years.In2015,morestringentEPLawsarebeingimplementedandtheappointmentofanacademic-specialist陳吉寧hopeswillbringanewlightonEPandcleanairinChina.AirPollutions–HowAirPollutions–HowChinaDealswithit?BasedonGlobalEnvironmentalCompetitivenessReport(2013)inJan2014,thefirstevenpublishedbyChineseAcademyofSocialSciences,Chinawasranked124thofatotalof133countriesinmattersofcompetitiveness.TheVitalInmatterofAirQuality,Chinaranks132thoutof133InPM2.5:ranksthe4thworst,InSO2:ranksthe3rdworst.InNOsubstances:ranksthe2ndworst,China’sGDPconsumptionperunit-wiseis2.2xofworldCarbontotalemissionistheFirstofthe地区自觉不自觉的在走一条先污染后治理的老路，也是一条弯路。“现在中国老百姓对环境的要求跟发达国家已经接轨了，但是我们的发展理念在很多地方根本没有转变。”(by中國國務院StateCouncil)Progressandagrowingeconomycanhavetheirowndrawbacks.InChina,theuncontrolledrateofgrowthhasturnedthecountryintoanenvironmentalnightmare.ActionstakenbyEPAonActionstakenbyEPAon•December20,2005-EPAhasproposedamendmentsformonitoringparticlepollution.TheproposedchangesincludethedesignofanetworktomonitorPM10-2.5.June14,2012-EPAestablishedaseparate"secondary"fineparticlestandardtoprotectvisibilityinurbanDecember14,2012-proposedstrengthenNAAQSforfine(PM2.5)to12.0µg/m3,andretainedtheexistingstandardsforcoarseparticlepollutionNovember15,2013-EPAproposedaruletoclarifyPM2.5implementationreqtstothestatesfor1997and2006non-attainmentareasasModerate.•••WaterQualityCriteria••ThroughjointeffortsofEPAandOSTCleanWaterQualityCriteria••ThroughjointeffortsofEPAandOSTCleanWaterAct(US)@section304(a)(1)enforcesEPAtoformulatestandardsandcriteriaforwaterqualitythatreflectsthelatestscientificknowledgebasedsolelyondataandscientificjudgmentsonpollutantconc.andenvironmentorhumanhealtheffects.AlsoNationalCentreforEnvironmentcontainriskassessmentcriteriaaddressingtotheadversehealthconsequencesofexposuretotoxicorpathogenicagentsinDrinkingWater.OST:OfficeofScience&TechnologyinEPA’sOfficeof•WaterQuality•StandardslaidWaterQuality•StandardslaiddownbyCleanWaterAct&SafeDrinkingWaterActProgramscomprisingAssessments,TMDLsandContainingrecommendedwaterqualitycriteriaforprotectionofAquaticLifeandHumanHealthinSurfaceWaterfor>150pollutants.•••WhataboutChinatreatingthisTMDL:TotalMaximumDailyLoad,appliedtowaterbodiesthatdon’tattainapplicablewaterqualitystandards.WaterQuality•ByNRWQCWaterQuality•ByNRWQC(2002,2009)-–ThreeTypesofWaterQualityCriteriaPriorityPollutants(120)–NonPriorityPollutants(47)-OrganolepticEffects*–tasteandodorNote:forbothFreshwater,SaltwaterandHumanHealth(consumption*forpollutantswithtoxicity-basedplusnon-toxicity-basedcriteria.Thebasisforthenon-toxicitycriteriaareO.E.whichcouldmakethewaterandtheedibleaquaticlifeunpalatablebutnottoxictohumans.NRWQC:NationalRecommendedWaterQualityPollutionRising-FearforSoilandFoods*FactsofPollutionRising-FearforSoilandFoods*Factsof1/6ofChina’sarableland(nearly750millionmus)suffersfromsoilpollution,accordingtotheMEP10%ofChina’sarableland(100millionmus)ispollutedwithheavyAndthatmorethan13milliontonsofcropsharvestedeachyearwerecontaminatedwithheavymetals.10%ofriceispollutedbyCadmium镉AfarmerworkedherlandintheshadowsofaleadfactoryinHengyang,Hunan,wherescholarssaysoilpollutionisespeciallyacute.Andthat330millionmusoffarmlandwereaffectedbypesticides.*InNewYorkTimes,31Dec,PollutionRising-FearforPollutionRi