中国文化概况Chapter4 Chinese Education

Chapter4ChineseEducation4.1ToRespectTeachersandValueeducation4.2DevelopmentofTraditionalEducation4.3PresentEducation4.3InternationalExchangesandCooperationIthasbeenalong-standingtraditiontovalueandrespectteachersinChina.Sinceancienttimes,Chinesepeoplehavepaidmuchattentiontoeducation4.1ToRespectTeachersandValueEducation4.1.1ValueEducationAbout2,600yearsago,GuanZhong（管仲）theWisesaidthat:“Whenascheduleofoneyeariscovered,weshouldthinkaboutcrops;Whilemakingupaten-years’plan,weshouldtakecareoftrees;Howeverwhenitisextendedtoonehundredyears,personsoftalentareeverything.”InChina,thefirstmonographabouteducation,Recordoflearning(《学记》)introducedtheideathat“educationisthetoppriority.”BackintheZhouDynasty3000yearsago,thegovernmentsetupschoolsofdifferentscopesandlevelsonthebasisofvariousadministrativedivisions.IntheSpringandAutumnPeriod,Confuciusevenranprivateschoolsinhishometownwithasloganthateveryone,richorpoor,hastherighttoreceiveeducation.SinceeducationissohighlyrespectedinChina,menofknowledgewouldhaveahighersocialstatusandbeesteemedbyotherpeople.Thereisanoldsayingthattobeascholaristobethetopofsociety,whichshowstheimportantpositionofeducationinthemindofpeople.Respectforeducationhasdeterminedthestatusofteacher.4.1.2RespectTeachersTherearealotofsayingsthatshowrespecttowardsteachers,forexample,“Ateacherforadayisafatheralifetime”.Foralongtime,thepositionofteacherwashonoredbythemassesandtheemperors.InthetempleofConfuciusinBeijing,manyemperorsintheQingDynastyhavewrittentheinscriptionstoshowtheirappreciationtomasterConfucius.InChina,thehonorshowntoteachersisdisplayedineveryaspectofsociallife.TheteacherisalwayscalledSirormentor.Nowadays,SeptemberthetenthisdesignatedtobetheTeachers’Day.Asweknow,sinceancienttimes,thetraditionsofteachingandeducationinChinahavebeenheldinthehighestesteem.4.2DevelopmentofTraditionalEducationBefore1905,thereweretwokindsofschoolsinChina:privateschools(私塾),runbyscholarsteachingstudentsathomeofficialschools(官学),whichwereopentochildrenofnobles.4.2.1PrivateSchoolsandOfficialSchoolsPrivateSchoolsAprivateschoolreferstoaschoolsetupbyafamily,clan,orteacherthatgenerallyhadjustoneteacherwhogaveindividualtuition,andthathadnosettextbooksandnospecifiedtimespanofstudy.IntheSpringandAutumnperiod,privateschoolsprevailedandmanyscholarsofdifferentschoolsofthoughtspreadtheirteachingsinthisway.Amongthem,theprivateschoolrunbyConfuciuswasthelargestandmostinfluential.Confuciusdevotedallhislifetotheprivateschoolsystemandinstructedmanystudents.Inhislife,Confuciushadinstructedmorethan3,000disciples,ofwhom72werepersonsofvirtue(贤人)whowentontospreadtheConfucianphilosophy.Amongthosedisciples,someofthemwerefrompoorfamilies.Inthisway,hehadgraduallychangedthetraditionthatnobodybutnobilitieshadtherighttoreceiveeducation.OfficialSchoolsOfficialschoolsbeganduringtheWesternZhouDynasty,andweresponsoredbytheofficialconstitutioncalledXiangxue(乡学:officialinstitutions).Onlychildrenofnobleswereadmitted.4.2.2FourBooksandtheFiveClassics(四书五经)Theofficialschoolingsystemincludedacentralschoolandlocalschoolsindifferentadministrativeregions.Theteachingmaterialswerecenteredon

theFourBooksand

theFiveClassics(四书五经).

FourBookscameintoexistencebeforetheQinDynasty.Amongthem,TheAnalectsofConfuciusisthecollectionofwordsanddeedsofConfucius.MenciusTheGreatLearningTheDoctrineofMean.Mencius

recordedthepoliticalthoughtofMasterMengZiwhowasanotherprominentfigureofConfucianism.TheGreatLearning,andTheDoctrineofMeanarethecollectionsoftreatisesontherulesofproprietyandceremonialusages.FiveClassicsTheBookofPoems《诗经》TheBookofHistory《尚书》TheBookofRites《礼记》TheBookofChanges《易经》TheSpringandAutumnAnnals《春秋》InthedynastiesofMingandQing,

thesentences

fromthe“FourBooks”and“FiveClassics”werethebasisfortheImperialExaminations.Therefore,theybecamethemostimportanttextbooksforscholarsofthetime.ThentheConfucianthoughtof“FourBooksandFiveClassics”becametheguidanceofbehavior.Furthermore,asthemostimportantancientcorpusofChina,itstillhasgreatinfluenceonthecurrentgeneration.4.2.3TheAcademyofClassicLearning(书院)TheAcademyofClassicLearningcameintobeingduringtheTangDynastyandcontinueduntiltheendoftheQingDynasty.Theywereestablishedinvariouslocalitiesforstudiesandlectures.TherearefourfamousacademiesofancientChina.YueluAcademy(岳麓书院)inChangsha,Hunanprovince;BailudongAcademy(白鹿洞书院)onMountLushan,Jiangxiprovince;SongyangAcademy(嵩阳书院)inDengfeng,HenanprovinceYingtianAcademy(应天书院)Shangqiu,Henanprovince.Academiesofclassicallearningand

bookscollectionmansions(藏书阁)existedforthousandsofyearsandweremorelikethepresenthighereducationinstitutionsandlibrariesoftoday.Theybecamethegatheringplacesforscholars,celebrities,andintellectuals.Whentheimperialcivilexaminationsystemwasabolished,mostoftheacademieswereconvertedintoschools.4.2.4Imperialexaminationsystem(科举考试制度)StartingintheSuiDynasty,theimperialgovernmentselecteditsofficialsfromtheranksofthesuccessfulcandidatesintheimperialcivilexamination.TheimperialexaminationsystemintheTangDynastywasclassifiedintotwotypes:Theregularone(常科)irregularone（制科）Theregularexaminationwasheldeveryyear.Ithadmanylevels：

Xiucai(秀才)Mingjing（明经）

Jinshi（进士）.

TheJinshidegreewasthemostdifficulttoattain.EveryyearhundredsofmentooktheJinshiexamination,butonlyoneortwopassed.Theirregularexaminationwassetspontaneouslybytheemperorhimself,whoactedasthechiefexaminer.However,itwasoflessimportancethantheregularone.Therearetwokindsofpeoplewhotooktheimperialcivilexamination.Oneconsistedofstudentschosenbyacademics,whowerecalledShengtu(生徒);theotherkind,calledXianggong（乡贡）,consistedofthosewhohadpassedtheexaminationheldbyprefecturesandcounties.Therewillbefourlevels:Thecountyexamination乡试

Xiucai秀才TheProvincialexamination省试

Juren举人TheAcademyExamination会试

Gongshi贡士ThePalaceExamination殿试

Jinshi进士ThecandidatewhowonthefirstplaceatthePalaceExamination,wascalledzhuangyuan(状元),andhewouldbegrantedahigh-rankingpositioninthecourt.Theonewhowonthesecondplacewascalledbangyan(榜眼)andthethirdtanhua(探花).TheywouldalsobeassignedimportantpostsinthegovernmentThecivilandmilitaryexamination Thecivilexaminationfeaturedwriting,andwasdesignedtoselectjinshi.Thecandidateswererequiredtowriteessaysinstrictaccordancewithaneight-partformknownforitsrigidityofformandstrictadherencetotheideologyoftherulingclass.Newideaswerecondemned.Anessayinthisstylemustconsistofeightparagraphs,andeachparagraphmustbewritteninasetform.Tosomedegree,itsrigidcontentandformofexaminationboundpeople’sthinking.Themilitaryexaminationfeaturedmartialarts,includinghorsemanship,archery,andweightlifting.InancientChina,classconsciousnesswasstrongandmanypeoplefromlowerclasseshadlittlechanceofreachinghighoffice,particularlyapositionintheroyalcourt.TheinfluenceoftheexaminationOncetheimperialcivilexaminationsystemwasintroduced,childrenfrompoorfamilieshadopportunitiestoattendthegovernmentexams,andthisenabledthemtobringhonortotheirfamilies.Thus,regardlessofparentageorage,nearlyallmaleswereeligibletorealizetheirpotential.Sothefamouslinescandescribesuchphenomenon:十年寒窗无人问，一举成名天下知。Ten-yearhardstudybythewindow,industrous,Onedaysuccessknowntotheworld,glorious!AftertheRevolutionof1911,ChinaintroducedaWesterneducationalsystem.4.2.5NewLearning(新学)NewLearningwassuchaverydifferenttypeofschool,modeledonWesterneducationalinstitutions,replacedthetraditionalofficialschools.Publicschoolswerefoundedinallpartsofthecountrywithmanysubjectsofstudyoffered.4.3PresenteducationForPresentEducation,basiceducationisprovidedtotheentireChinesepopulation.Highereducation,vocationaleducation,educationforthedeafandblind,diversifiedadulteducation,andeducationforethnicminoritygroupshavebeendevelopingrapidly.4.3.1Basiceducation:InChina,basiceducationincludespreschooleducation,primaryschooleducationandmiddleschooleducation(juniormiddleandseniormiddle).Thelengthofschoolingistypicallyfiveorsixyearsinprimaryschools,threeyearsinjuniormiddleschools,andthreeyearsinseniormiddleschools.NurseriesandkindergartensarethemainformsofChina’spreschooleducation.China’snurseriesprovidecareforbabies

undertheageofthree.Therearedaynurseriesaswellasboardingnurseries(全托),whichreleasetheirchildrenfortheweekend.Kindergartensenrollchildrenfromagethreetosix.Gameplayingformsthemainpartoftheireducationalactivities.4.3.2Nine-yearCompulsoryEducationThelawofcompulsoryeducationcameintoeffectonJuly1,1986,requiringeachchildtohavenineyearsofformaleducation.China’sNine-yearCompulsoryEducationiscomposedoftwoparts:

six-yearsinprimaryschoolthree-yearsinjuniorhighschoolThecurriculumisdesignedtoensurearoundeddevelopmentofthestudentsmorally,intellectually,physicallyandaesthetically(德智体美全面发展).

Thethree-yearSeniorMiddleSchool(orseniormiddle-school)educationisapreparationperiodforthestudentstoentercollegesanduniversities.ThemajorcoursesincludeChineselanguage,mathematics,English,physics,chemistry,physiology,history,geography,biology,andpolitics.TheNationalCollegeEntranceExamination(NCEE)orGaokao

AnacademicexaminationheldannuallyinChinaaimedtoselecthigh-schoolgraduatesforcollegeadmissions.Theexamcoversthemostcommonsubjects,namelymathematics,Chinese,English,physics,chemistry,biologyandpolitics.Itisusuallytakenbystudentsintheirlastschoolyearofseniorhighschool.Gaokaoisthemostprimarywayforstudentswhoareapplyingtouniversitiesaftertheirgraduationofhighschool.Studentsareonlyallowedtoenterthecollegesoruniversitieswhentheiroverallscorespasstheminimumqualifyingscoreforschoolstheyareapplyingto.ProjectHopeandtheSpringBudProjectIn1989,Chinalaunchedtwoambitiousprojects:ProjectHope(希望工程)theSpringBudProject(春蕾计划)Thesetwoprojectshavehelpedchildren,especiallygirls,inpoorareastoattendschools.ThehistoryofhighereducationinChinacanbetracedbacktotheHanDynastyabout2000yearsago.4.3.3HigherEducationInYuanandMingDynasties,theinstituteforhighereducationwascalled

GuoZiJian(国子监),whichwasalsothehighestadministrativebureaufornationalaffairs.ItwastheequivalenttothecurrentMinistryofEducation

Nowmorethantwothousanduniversities,colleges,andinstitutesinChinaofferfourorfive-yearprograms.StudentswhohaveearnedBachelorofArtsorSciencedegreesmayapplyforMasterofArtsorScienceprogramsandthenthree-yearDoctorofPhilosophy(Ph.D.)programs.Undergraduatestudiescoverbasicandspecializedcourses,andspecializedcourses.Studentsgenerallytakebasiccourseswithmanyclasshoursintheirfirsttwoyearsandspecializedcourseswithfewerclasshoursintheirlasttwoyears.Collegeanduniversitystudentsalsohaveawidechoiceofextracurricularactivitiesandeveryinstitutionofhigherlearninghasstudentassociationspractising“self-management,self-education,andself-service”.

Studentscanjoinvariousassociations,someofwhichareofficialoneslikestudents’unionswhileothersarestudentcommunitiesbasedonstudents’interests,suchasathletic,academic,oradventurousassociations.Theseassociationshavegenerallyregularactivitiesinwhichstudentsmayenhancemutualexchange,mutualunderstanding,andfriendship.Project211andProject985Theyear1997sawthelaunchofProject211,withtheaimtoestablishabout100keyinstitutionsofhighereducationwithkeyresearchprojectspoisedtomeetchallengesinthe21stcentury.

Project985,whichwaslaunchedin1998withtheaimofbuildingworld-classuniversitiesinChina,isanotherprojecttopromotethedevelopmentoftheChinesehighereducationsystem.By2008,39universitieshadbeensponsored.4.3.4AdulteducationAdulteducationinChinacanbedividedintocertificateandnon-certificatestudy.Methodsofdeliveryincludecorrespondence,vocationalcolleges,andself-teachingprogrammes.4.3.5SpecialeducationChinesegovernmenthasissuedasetoflawsandregulationsandsetspecialfundsonsafeguardingtherightsofpeoplewithdisabilitiestobeeducated.Vocationaleducationishighlyvaluedforitsemployment-enhancingeffect.Thegovernmenthasbeenstudyingandsolvingtheuniqueproblemsrelatingtoeducationforethnicminoritygroupsandmoregovernmentfundsandpolicieshavebeenallocatedandmade.4.4InternationalExchangesandCooperation

Nowinternationalcommunicationandcooperationineducationhasmovedtoanewstage.Studentsarehelpedandencouragedtostudyabroad,andthenumberofforeignersstudyinginChinahasgreatlyincreased.

MoreandmoreChinese-ForeignCooperationinRunningSchools

havebeenimplemented.ConfuciusInstitutesConfuciusInstitutesarenon-profitpublicinstitutions,