语言学讲义及习题

Chapterone

TheGoalsfbrthisCourse

Togetascientificviewonlanguage;

Tounderstandsomebasictheoriesonlinguistics;

Tounderstandtheapplicationsofthelinguistictheories,especiallyinthefieldsof

languageteaching&learning(SLAorTEFL),cross-culturalcommunication;

Topreparefbrthefutureresearchwork.

TheRequirementsfbrthiscourse

Classattendance

Classroomdiscussion

Fulfillmentoftheassignment

Examination

ReferenceBooks

戴炜栋，何兆熊，(2002),《新编简明英语语言学教程》，上海外语教育出版社。

胡壮麟，(2001),《语言学教程》，北京大学出版社。

胡壮麟，李战子，《语言学简明教程》，北京大学出版社

刘润清，(1995),《西方语言学流派》，外语教学与研究出版社。

Fromkin,V.&R.Rodman,(1998),AnIntroductiontoLanguagethesixthedition,

Orlando,Florida:Holt,Ranehart&Winston,Inc.

许国璋先生认为把语言定义成交际工具不够科学，至少不够严谨•他对语言的定义

做了如下概括:语言是一种符号系统.

当它作用于人与人之间的关系的时候,它是表达相互反应的中介；

当它作用于人与客观世界的关系的时候，它是认知事物的工具；

当它作用于文化的时候，它是文化的载体.

Teachingaims:letthestudentshavethegeneralideaaboutlanguageandlinguistics.

Teachingdifficulties:designfeaturesoflanguage;someimportantdistinctionsin

linguistics

Whydowestudylanguage?

Atoolfbrcommunication

Anintegralpartofourlifeandhumanity

Ifwearenotfullyawareofthenatureandmechanismofourlanguage,wewillbe

ignorantofwhatconstitutesouressentialhumanity.

Whatcanlanguagemean?

Languagecanmean

whatapersonsays(e.g.badlanguage,expressions)

thewayofspeakingorwriting(e.g.Shakespeare'slanguage,Luxun'slanguage)

aparticularvarietyorlevelofspeechorwriting(e.g.languageforspecialpurpose,

colloquiallanguage)

theabstractsystemunderlyingthetotalityofthespeech/writingbehaviorofa

community(e.g.Chineselanguage,firstlanguage)

thecommonfeaturesofallhumanlanguages(e.g.Hestudieslanguage)

atoolforhumancommunication.(socialfunction)

asetofrules,(rule-governed)

Theoriginsoflanguagethemythoflanguage

TheBiblicalaccount

LanguagewasGod'sgifttohumanbeings.

Thebow-wowtheory

Languagewasanimitationofnaturalsounds,suchasthecriesofanimals,likequack,

cuckoo.

Thepooh-poohtheory

Languagearosefrominstinctiveemotionalcries,expressiveofpainorjoy.

Theyo-he-hotheory

Languagearosefromthenoisesmadebyagroupofpeopleengagedinjointlabouror

effort-liftingahugehuntedgame,movingarock,etc.

Theevolutiontheory

Languageoriginatedintheprocessoflabourandansweredthecallofsocialneed.

Functionsoflanguage-threemeta-functionsbyHalliday

Theideationalfunction

Toidentifythings,tothink,ortorecordinformation.

Theinterpersonalfunction

Togetalonginacommunity.

Thetextualfunction

Toformatext.

Functionsoflanguage

Phatic:establishinganatmosphereormaintainingsocialcontact.

Directive:getthehearertodosomething.

Informative:giveinfonnationaboutfacts.

Interrogative:getinformationfromothers.

Expressive:expressfeelingsandattitudesofthespeaker.

Evocative:createcertainfeelingsinthehearer(amuse,startle,soothe,worryor

please)

Performative:languageisusedtodothings,toperformactions.

WhatisLanguage

Languageisasystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsusedforhumancommunication.

Whatiscommunication?

Aprocessinwhichinformationistransmittedfromasource(senderorspeaker)toa

goal(receiverorlistener).

Asystem——elementsinitarearrangedaccordingtocertainrules.Theycannotbe

arrangedatwill.

e.g.Hethetablecleaned,(x)bkli(x)

Arbitrarythereisnointrinsic(logic)connectionbetweenalinguisticformandits

meaning.

Symbolswordsarejustthesymbolsassociatedwithobjects,actions,andideasby

convention.

Vocaltheprimarymediumforalllanguagesissound,nomatterhowwell

developedtheirwritingsystemsare.

Writingsystemscameintobeingmuchlaterthanthespokenforms.

Peoplewithlittleornoliteracycanalsobecompetentlanguageusers.

Humanlanguageishuman-specific.

Humanbeingshavedifferentkindsofbrainsandvocalcapacity.

“LanguageAcquisitionDevice,9(LAD)

Designfeaturesoflanguage语言的结构特征

Designfeaturesreferstothedefiningpropertiesofhumanlanguagethatdistinguishit

fromanyanimalsystemofcommunication.

a.arbitrariness——theformoflinguisticsignsbearnonaturalrelationshiptotheir

meaning.Thelinkbetweenthemisamatterofconvention.

E.g.”house“uchi(Japanese)

Mansion(French)

房子(Chinese)

conventionality——Itmeansthatinanylanguagetherearecertainsequencesofsounds

thathaveaconventionallyacceptedmeaning.Thosewordsarecustomarilyusedby

allspeakerswiththesameintendedmeaningandunderstoodbyalllistenersinthe

sameway.

Therearetwodifferentschoolsofbeliefconcerningarbitrariness.Mostpeople,

especiallystructurallinguistsbelievethatlanguageisarbitrarybynature.Other

people,however,holdthatlanguageisiconic,thatis,thereisadirectrelationor

correspondencebetweensoundandmeaning,suchasonomatopoeia.(cuckoo;crash)

Forthemajorityofanimalsignals,theredoesappeartobeaclearconnection

betweentheconveyedmessageandthesignalusedtoconveyit,Andfbrthem,the

setsofsignalsusedincommunicationisfinite.

b.dualitylanguageissimultaneouslyorganizedattwolevelsorlayers,namely,the

levelofsoundsandthatofmeaning.

thehigherlevelwordswhicharemeaningful

thelowerorthebasiclevel——soundswhicharemeaningless,butcanbegroupedand

regroupedintowords.

Dog:woof(butnot"w-oo-f")

Thisdualityoflevelsis,infact,oneofthemosteconomicalfeaturesof

humanlanguage,sincewithalimitedsetofdistinctsoundswearecapableof

producingaverylargenumberofsoundcombinations(e.g.words)whichare

distinctinmeaning.

Theprincipleofeconomy

c.Creativity——languageisresourceful.Itmakespossibletheconstructionand

interpretationofnewsignalsbyitsusers.(novelutterancesarecontinuallybeing

created.)

non-humansignals,ontheotherhand,appearstohavelittleflexibility.

E.g.anexperimentofbeecommunication:

Theworkerbee,normallyabletocommunicatethelocationofanectarsource,will

failtodosoifthelocationisreally'new'.Inoneexperiment,ahiveofbeeswas

placedatthefootofaradiotowerandafoodsourceatthetop.Tenbeesweretakento

thetop,shownthefoodsource,andsentofftotelltherestofthehiveabouttheirfind.

Themessagewasconveyedviaabeedanceandthewholegangbuzzedofftogetthe

freefood.They

flowaroundinalldirections,butcouldn'tlocatethefood.Theproblemmaybethat

beecommunicationregardinglocationhasafixedsetofsignals,allofwhichrelated

tohorizontaldistance.Thebeecannotcreatea'new'messageindicatingvertical

distance.

d.Displacement——humanlanguagesenabletheiruserstosymbolizeobjects,events

andconceptswhicharenotpresentatthemomentofcommunication.

Beecommunication:

Whenaworkerbeefindsasourceofnectarandreturnstothehive,itcanperforma

complexdanceroutinetocommunicatetotheotherbeesthelocationofthisnectar.

Dependingonthetypeofdance(rounddancefbrnearbyandtail-waggingdance,with

variabletempo,fbrfurtherawayandhowfar),Theotherbeescanworkputwherethis

newlydiscoveredfeastcanbefound.Beecommunicationhasdisplacementinan

extremelylimitedform.However,itmustbethemostrecentfoodsource.

e.Culturaltransmission——genetictransmission

Youacquirealanguageinaculturewithotherspeakersandnotfromparental

genes.

Theprocesswherebylanguageispassedonfromonegenerationtothenextis

describedasculturaltransmission.

f.interchangeability:itmeansthatindividualswhousealanguagecanbothsendand

receiveanypermissiblemessagewithinthatcommunicationsystem.Humanbeings

canbeaproduceraswellasreceiverofmessages.

WhatisLinguistics(语言学)

Linguisticsisascientificstudyoflanguage.Itisamajorbranchofsocialscience.

Linguisticsstudiesnotjustonelanguageofanysociety,butthelanguageofallhuman

society,languageingeneral.

Ascientificstudyisonewhichisbasedonthesystematicinvestigationofdata,

conductedwithreferencetosomegeneraltheoryoflanguagestructure.

Processoflinguisticstudy:

①Certainlinguisticfactsareobserved,generalizationareformed;

②Hypothesesareformulated;

(3)Hypothesesaretestedbyfurtherobservations;

④Alinguistictheoryisconstructed.

observationgeneralizationhypothesistestedbyfurther

observationtheory

Personwhostudieslinguisticsisknownasalinguist.

TheScopeofLinguistics

Generallinguisticsisthestudyoflanguageasawhole.

Internalbranches:intra-disciplinarydivisions（micro-linguistics）

Phonetics（语音学）isthebranchoflinguisticswhichstudiesthecharacteristicsof

speechsoundsandprovidesmethodsfortheirdescription,classificationand

transcription.

Phonology（音韵学）isthebranchoflinguisticswhichstudiesthesoundpatternsof

languages.

Morphology（词法）isthebranchoflinguisticswhichstudiestheformofwords.

Syntax（句法）isthebranchoflinguisticswhichstudiestherulesgoverningthe

combinationofwordsintosentences.

Semantics（语义学）isthebranchoflinguisticswhichstudiesthemeaningof

language.

Pragmatics（语用学）isthebranchoflinguisticswhichstudiesthemeaningof

languageinuse.

Externalbranches:inter-disciplinarydivisions（macro-linguistics）

Appliedlinguistics（应用语言学）isthestudyoftheteachingofforeignandsecond

languages.

Sociolinguisticsisthestudyoftherelationshipbetweenlanguageandsociety.

Psycholinguisticsisthestudyoftherelationshipbetweenlanguageandthemind.

HistoricalLinguistics（历史语言学）isthestudyoflanguagechanges.

Anthropologicallinguistics（人文语言学）usesthetheoriesandmethodsof

anthropologytostudylanguagevariationandlanguageuseinrelationtothecultural

patternsandbeliefsofman.

Neurolinguistics（神经语言学）studiestheneurologicalbasisoflanguage

developmentanduseinhumanbeings.

Mathematicallinguistics（数学语言学）studiesthemathematicalfeaturesoflanguage,

oftenemployingmodelsandconceptsofmathematics.

Computationallinguistics（计算语言学）isanapproachtolinguisticsinwhich

mathematicaltechniquesandconcepts（概念）areapplied,oftenwiththeaidofa

computer.

Featuresoflinguistics

Descriptive

Dealingwithspokenlanguage

Synchronic

SomeBasicDistinctions（区分）inLinguistics

1.SpeechandWriting

Onegeneralprinciple（原贝U）oflinguisticanalysisistheprimacyofspeechover

writing.Writinggiveslanguagenewscope（范畴）andusesthatspeechdoesnothave.

2.Descriptive（描述性）orPrescriptive（说明性）

Alinguisticstudyisdescriptiveifitdescribesandanalysesfactsobserved;itis

prescriptiveifittriestolaydownrulesfbr"correct”behavior.

3.Synchronic（共时）andDiachronic（历时）Studies

ThedescriptionofalanguageatsomepointintimeisasynchronicstudyandThe

descriptionofalanguageasitchangesthroughtimeisadiachronicstudy.

4.Langue（语言）andParole（言语）

ThisisadistinctionmadebytheSwisslinguistF.DeSaussure（索绪尔）earlylast

century,languereferstotheabstractlinguisticsystemsharedbyallthemembersofa

speechcommunityandparolereferstotheactualized（实际的）language,or

realizationoflangue.

5.Competence（能力）andPerformance（行为）

Competenceistheideallanguageuser'sknowledgeoftherulesofhislanguage.

Performanceistheactualrealizationofthisknowledgeinutterances（发声）.

6.PotentialandBehavior:EnglishlinguistHallidaymakesanothersimilardistinction

inthe1960s,namelythedistinctionbetweenlinguisticpotentialandlinguistic

behavior.Heapproacheslanguagefromafunctionalviewandconcentratesprimarily

onwhatspeakersdowithlanguagewhichledtothedistinctionbetweenlinguistic

potential（whatspeakerscandowithlanguage）andbehavior（whatspeakersactually

dowithlanguage）.InHalliday'sdistinctionbetweenpotentialandbehavior,potential

issimilartoSaussure^"langue“andChomsky'scompetence,andbehaviorissimilar

toSaussure^”parole“andChomsky'sperformance.

7.ModernlinguisticsstartedwiththepublicationofF.deSaussure9sbook“Coursein

GeneralLinguistics“intheearly20thcentury.SoSaussureisoftendescribedas

"fatherofmodernlinguistics”.

Thegeneralapproachtraditionallyformedtothestudyoflanguagebeforethatis

roughlyreferredtoas"traditionalgrammar.MTheydifferinseveralbasicways:

Firstly,linguisticsisdescriptivewhiletraditionalgrammarisprescriptive.Alinguistis

interestedinwhatissaid,notinwhathethinksoughttobesaid.Hedescribes

languageinallitsaspects,butdoesnotprescriberulesof“correctness”.

Secondly,modemlinguisticsregardsthespokenlanguageasprimary,notthewritten.

Traditionalgrammarians,ontheotherhand,tendtoemphasize,maybe

over-emphasize,theimportanceofthewrittenword,partlybecauseofitspermanence.

Then,modemlinguisticsdiffersfromtraditionalgrammaralsointhatitdoesnotforce

languagesintoaLatin-basedframework.Tomodemlinguists,itisunthinkableto

judgeonelanguagebystandardsofanother.Theyaretryingtosetupauniversal

framework,butthatwouldbebasedonthefeaturessharedbymostofthelanguages

usedbymankind.

ChapterIIntroduction

I.DecidewhethereachofthefollowingstatementsisTrueorFalse:

1.Linguisticsisgenerallydefinedasthescientificstudyoflanguage.

2.Linguisticsstudiesparticularlanguage,notlanguagesingeneral.

3.Ascientificstudyoflanguageisbasedonwhatthelinguistthinks.

4.Inthestudyoflinguistics,hypothesesformedshouldbebasedonlanguagefacts

andcheckedagainsttheobservedfacts.

5.Generallinguisticsisgenerallythestudyoflanguageasawhole.

6.Generallinguistics,whichrelatesitselftotheresearchofotherareas,studiesthe

basicconcepts,theories,descriptions,modelsandmethodsapplicableinanylinguistic

study.

7.Phoneticsisdifferentfromphonologyinthatthelatterstudiesthecombinationsof

thesoundstoconveymeaningincommunication.

8.Morphologystudieshowwordscanbeformedtoproducemeaningfulsentences.

9.Thestudyofthewaysinwhichmorphemescanbecombinedtoformwordsis

calledmorphology.

10.Syntaxisdifferentfrommorphologyinthattheformernotonlystudiesthe

morphemes,butalsothecombinationofmorphemesintowordsandwordsinto

sentences.

11.Thestudyofmeaninginlanguageisknownassemantics.

12.Bothsemanticsandpragmaticsstudymeanings.

13.Pragmaticsisdifferentfromsemanticsinthatpragmaticsstudiesmeaningnotin

isolation,butincontext.

14.Socialchangescanoftenbringaboutlanguagechanges.

15.Sociolinguisticsisthestudyoflanguageinrelationtosociety.

16.Modemlinguisticsismostlyprescriptive,butsometimesdescriptive.

17.Modemlinguisticsisdifferentfromtraditionalgrammar.

18.Adiachronicstudyoflanguageisthedescriptionoflanguageatsomepointin

time.

19.Modernlinguisticsregardsthewrittenlanguageasprimary,notthewritten

language.

20.ThedistinctionbetweencompetenceandperformancewasproposedbyF.de

Saussure.

II.Fillineachofthefollowingblankswithonewordwhichbeginswiththeletter

given:

21.Chomskydefines“competence“astheidealuser'skoftherulesof

hislanguage.

22.Languereferstothealinguisticsystemsharedbyallthemembersof

aspeechcommunitywhiletheparoleistheconcreteuseoftheconventionsand

applicationoftherules.

23.Disoneofthedesignfeaturesofhumanlanguagewhichreferstothe

phenomenonthatlanguageconsistsoftwolevels:alowerlevelofmeaningless

individualsoundsandahigherlevelofmeaningfulunits.

24.Languageisasystemofavocalsymbolsusedforhuman

communication.

25.Thedisciplinethatstudiestherulesgoverningtheformationofwordsinto

permissiblesentencesinlanguagesiscalleds.

26.Humancapacityforlanguagehasagbasis,butthedetailsoflanguagehave

tobetaughtandlearned.

27.Preferstotherealizationoflangueinactualuse.

28.Findingsinlinguisticstudiescanoftenbeappliedtothesettlementofsome

practicalproblems.Thestudyofsuchapplicationsisgenerallyknownasa

linguistics.

29.Languageispinthatitmakespossibletheconstructionand

interpretationofnewsignalsbyitsusers.Inotherwords,theycanproduceand

understandaninfinitelylargenumberofsentenceswhichtheyhaveneverheard

before.

30.Linguisticsisgenerallydefinedasthesstudyoflanguage.

III.Therearefourchoicesfollowingeachstatement.Markthechoicethatcanbest

completethestatement.

31.Ifalinguisticstudydescribesandanalyzesthelanguagepeopleactuallyuse,itis

saidtobe.

A.prescriptiveB.analytic

C.descriptiveD.linguistic

32.Whichofthefollowingisnotadesignfeatureofhumanlanguage?

A.ArbitrarinessB.Displacement

C.DualityD.Meaningfulness

33.Modernlinguisticsregardsthewrittenlanguageas.

A.primaryB.correct

C.secondaryD.stable

34.Inmodemlinguistics,speechisregardedasmorebasicthanwriting,because

A.inlinguisticevolution,speechispriortowriting

B.speechplaysagreaterrolethanwritingintermsoftheamountofinformation

conveyed.

C.speechisalwaysthewayinwhicheverynativespeakeracquireshismothertongue

D.Alloftheabove

35.Ahistoricalstudyoflanguageisastudyoflanguage.

A.synchronicB.diachronic

C.prescriptiveD.comparative

36.Saussuretooka(n)viewoflanguage,whileChomskylooksat

languagefromapointofview.

A.sociological...psychologicalB.psychological...sociological

C.applied...pragmaticD.semanticandlinguistic

37.AccordingtoF.deSaussure,referstotheabstractlinguisticsystemshared

byallthemembersofaspeechcommunity.

A.paroleB.performance

C.langueD.Language

38.Languageissaidtobearbitrarybecausethereisnologicalconnectionbetween

andmeanings.

A.senseB.sounds

C.objectsD.ideas

39.Languagecanbeusedtorefertocontextsremovedfromtheimmediatesituations

ofthespeaker.Thisfeatureiscalled,

A.displacementB.duality

C.flexibilityD.culturaltransmission

40.Thedetailsofanylanguagesystemispassedonfromonegenerationtothenext

through,ratherthanbyinstinct.

A.learningB.teaching

C.booksD.bothAandB

Chapter2Phonology

Languageisprimarilyvocal.Theprimarymediumofhumanlanguageissound.

Linguistsarenotinterestedinallsounds,butinspeechsounds--soundsthatconvey

meaninginhumancommunication.

Phonetics

Abranchoflinguisticswhichstudiesthecharacteristicsofspeechsoundsand

providesmethodsfbrtheirdescription,classificationandtranscription,e.g,[p]

bilabial,stop.

Threebranchesofphonetics

Articulatoryphonetics——fromthespeakers9pointofview,“howspeakersproduce

speechsounds”

theproductionofspeechsounds.Itisofourmajorconcern

Auditoryphoneticsfromthehearers9pointofview,66howsoundsareperceived^^

theperceptivemechanismofspeechsounds

Acousticphonetics——fromthephysicalwayormeansbywhichsoundsare

transmittedfromonetoanother.

thephysicalpropertiesofspeechsounds

Thespeechorgans

Wheredoestheairstreamcomefrom?

Fromthelung

Whatisthefunctionofvocalcords?

Controllingtheairstream

Whatarethethreecavities?

Pharyngealcavitythethroat;

Theoralcavity——themouth;

Nasalcavity——thenose.

Transcriptionofspeechsounds

Astandardizedandinternationallyacceptedsystemofphonetictranscriptionisthe

InternationalPhoneticAlphabet(IPA).ThebasicprincipleoftheIPAisusingone

lettertorepresentonespeechsound.

TheIPAattemptstorepresenteachsoundofhumanspeechwithasinglesymboland

thesymbolsareenclosedinbrackets[]todistinguishphonetictranscriptionsfromthe

spellingsystemofalanguage.

Inmoredetailedtranscription(narrowtranscription)asoundmaybetranscribedwith

asymboltowhichasmallerisaddedinordertomarkthefinerdistinctions.

Broadtranscriptionusedindictionaryandtextbookfbrgeneralpurpose,without

diacritics,e.g.],[pit]clear[

Narrowtranscriptionusedbyphoneticianforcarefulstudy,withdiacritics,e.g.

dark[1],aspirated[p]

Somemajorarticulatoryvariables——dimensionsonwhichspeechsoundsmayvary:

Voicing--voiced&voiceless(Twoconsonantssharingthesameplaceandmanner

ofarticulationbecomeapair,whichisdistinguishedbyvoicelessorvoiced.)

Nasalitynasal&non-nasal

Aspirationaspirated&unaspirated

ClassificationofEnglishspeechsounds

Englishspeechsoundsaregenerallyclassifiedintotwolargecategories:Vowels

andConsonants

Note:Theessentialdifferencebetweenthesetwoclassesisthatintheproduction

oftheformertheairstreammeetswithnoobstructionofanykindinthethroat,the

noseorthemouth,whileinthatofthelatteritissomehowobstructed.

Classificationofconsonants

——Englishconsonantsmaybeclassifiedaccordingtotwodimensions:

Themannerofarticulation

Theplaceofarticulation

Themannerofarticulation

stops/plosives:[p],,[t],[d],[k],[g];

],],[v],[s],[z],[fricatives:[],[h];],[],[[

.];],[affricates:[

liquids:];[l](lateral),[

.]；],[],[nasals:[

].glides/semivowels:[w],[

Theplaceofarticulation

bilabial:[p],],[w];,[

],[v];labiodental:[

]；],[dental:[

alveolar:[t],[d],[s],[z],[n],[1],[r];

]；LtLtpalatal:[

velar:[k],.];[g],[

glottal:[h].

Theplaceofarticulation

1.Bilabial;

2.Labiodental;

3.Dentalorinterdental;

4.Alveolar;

5.Palatoalveolar;

6.Palatal;

7.Velar;

8.Uvular;

9.Glottal.

ThedescriptionofEnglishconsonantsPage20(textbook)

Classificationofvowels

Differentvowelsaredeterminedbythepositionofthetongueandtherelative

openingofthelips.

Thecriteriaofvoweldescription

1.thepartofthetonguethatisraisedfront,centerorback

2.theopeningofthemouth——close,semi-close,semi-open,open

3.theshapeofthelips■--rounded,unrounded

4.thelengthofthesound-tense,lax(紧,松)

Monophthongsorpure/singlevowels

Diphthongsorglidingvowels

Monophthongsorpure/singlevowels

——Accordingtowhichpartofthetongueisheldhighestintheprocessofproduction,

thevowelscanbedistinguishedas:

front]],[],[],[],[],[vowels:[

],],[centralvowels:[];[

].],[],[],[],[backvowels:[

Accordingtotheopennessofthemouth

].Lt]4LtClose:[

];],[Semi-close:[

];],[Semi-open:[

],Open:[];],[],[],[[

Accordingtotheshapeofthelipsorthedegreeofliprounding

];],[],[],[rounded:[

].],[],[],[],[unrounded:[

Accordingtothelengthofthevowels

]，Ltlong:[]],[],[[

]，L[LtLtLtLtLtshort:[].[

Diphthongs/glidingvowels

[].LtLtLtLt

Exercises:underlinethewordsthatbeginwithasoundasrequired.

Abilabialconsonant:madsadbadcadpadhadlad

Avelarconsonant:nodgodcodpodrod

Labiodentalconsonant:ratfatsatmatchatvatpat

Analveolarconsonant:nicklicksicktickkickquick

Apalato-alveolarconsonant:sipshiptipchiplipzip

Adentalconsonant:liebuythighthytierye

Aglide:onewaryolkrush

Underlinethewordsthatendwithasoundasrequired:

Africative

payhorsetoughricebreathpushsingwreathehangcavemessage

Anasal

trainbangleaflimb

Astop

drillpipefitcrabfogridelaughrackthroughtip

Anaffricate:racksuchridgebooze

Underlinethewordsthatcontainthesoundasrequired:

Acentralvowel:

madlotbutbootword

Afrontvowel:

reedpadloadfatebitbedcook

Aroundedvowel:

whohebusherhittruebossbarwalk

Abackvowel:

paidreapfooltopgoodfather

Describetheunderlinedconsonantsaccordingtothreedimensions:

vd/vlplace

manner

Letter

Brother

Sunny

Hopper

Itching

Lodger

Calling

Singing

Robber

Either

Phonology

Phonologystudiesthepatterningofspeechsounds,thatis,thewaysinwhichspeech

soundsformsystemsandpatternsinhumanlanguages.

Phonologyandphoneticsaretwostudiesdifferentinperspectives,whichare

concernedwiththestudyofspeechsounds.

Phonologyfocusesonthreefundamentalquestions.

Whatsoundsmakeupthelistofsoundsthatcandistinguishmeaninginaparticular

language?

Whatsoundsvaryinwhatwaysinwhatcontext?

Whatsoundscanappeartogetherinasequenceinaparticularlanguage?

Phonetics&phonology

Bothareconcernedwiththesameaspectoflanguage——thespeechsounds.Butthey

differintheirapproachandfocus.

Phoneticsisofgeneralnature;itisinterestedinallthespeechsoundsusedinall

humanlanguages;itaimstoanswerquestionslike:howtheyareproduced,howthey

differfromeachother,whatphoneticfeaturestheyhave,howtheycanbeclassified,

etc.

Phonologyaimstodiscoverhowspeechsoundsinalanguageformpatternsandhow

thesesoundsareusedtoconveymeaninginlinguisticcommunication.

Phone,phoneme,allophone

Phone:thedifferentversionsoftheabstractunit-phoneme

Phoneme:themean-distinguishingsoundinalanguage,placedinslashmarks

Allophone:asetofphones,allofwhichareversionsofonephoneme

Phone

Aphone——aphoneticunitorsegment.Thespeechsoundswehearand

p