《国际物流英语》-第9章

Thepurposeofsupplychainmanagementistobeleanbydrivingoutexcessinventoryandunnecessarycostsandbyreducingcycletime.Supplychainsrunfromsuppliersthroughtocustomersorstoresandrequireprocess,technologyandpeopleforsuccess.Thisistrueregardlessofyourindustry.Whetheryourlogisticsneedisoutsourcing,reengineering,implementingleanorotherchanges,InternationalSupplyChaincandevelopandimplementimprovements.AirFreightforwardingofthevaluablesisdoneirrespectiveofthelocationofthedestination.Safedeliveryofthegoodsisalsoinsured.Itsservicesinthiscategoryinclude:●World-wideConsolidation●Optionofcarriersbasedonyourcargoneeds●Projectwork&flightcharteringSeaFreightisaneminentfeatureamongtheservicesofferedbyfreightagent.Theyexcelinfacilitatingitsclientswiththefollowingservices:PartⅠInternationalSupplyChain下一页返回●World-widecargoConsolidation●HandlingFCL’s/LCL’sshipmenttoworld-widedestinations●ProjectCargohandling●OceanFreightForwardingCustomsClearanceConvenienceofthecustomersistakencareof,bythefinalizationofthedocumentsetc.andbysavingtheclientfromcomplexadministrativeprocedures.Itsservicesinclude:●Customdocumentation●Carting/Receivinggoods●Examinationofshipment●Handlingofstuffing&de-stuffingatports●ICD’sandCustomerswarehouseInternationalTransportationAspioneersinthissegmentofthetransportationservices,theytakeprideinofferingthelargeindustrialhousesaverycosteffectiveandcompletedistributionsystemfortheirproductsaroundworld.PartⅠInternationalSupplyChain上一页下一页返回Withasoundsoftwarebackupitprovidesthisdistributionservicesgradewise,batchwiseetc.asthemanufacturermayrequire.Byprovidingcontainerizedtransportationondedicatedrailserviceitcaterstobulkmovementofhighdensityaswellasvoluminouscargo.Thissystemnotonlybringsaboutconsiderablecostsavingsbutalsosafeguardsthecargoagainstpilferageandtheft.Itprovidesitsclientsthecomfortofcargotransportationfortheirsafedelivery,dispatchandpickup.Doorstepdeliveryisaspecialfeatureofitsservices.Thearrayofitsservicescomprisesof:●Cargopickupfacilityroundtheclockbyownfleetsofclosebodytrucks●Transportationofaircargo,customclearedinhinterlandstointernationalairport●Transportofgoodsfromportofdischargetohinterlanddestinationsinconjunctionwithitsoverseaspartners●DoortoDoordeliveryofcargoPartⅠInternationalSupplyChain上一页下一页返回Import–ExportConsultancyItsexperiencedCargoCareConsultantscanadviseyouonallofyourimportorexportneeds,documentation,licenserequirementsandcargorates.Itprovidesservicesrelatedtoexport-importcodenumber,customsregistration,documentation,draftformalities,pricefixation,importclearanceandlicense,legalissues,taxlaws,liaison,businesspromotion,labormanagementandaccounting.CargoConsolItfacilitatesitscustomerbymakingcargoconsolidation(ByAir/Sea)whichincludethetransportationofcargotothestuffingpoint,stuffingofcargoincontainer,customprocessofshippingdocuments,useofPremiumAir/ShippingLinesandmakesurethatthecargowillreachattherespectivedestinationwellbeforethetimegivenbyourreputedcustomer.Wefollowverycarefullyalltheimportantshippinginstructiongivenanddotakecareofthecargobywarehousingituntiltheshipmentwillbephysicallyaffected.PartⅠInternationalSupplyChain上一页下一页返回WarehousingItsexclusiveservicesincludesecuredcargowarehousing.Specialattentionispaidtothecontrolchecksofthegoods,enablingtheclienttohavehigherefficiency.Itprovides:●Adequateinsuredprivatewarehousingspace.●Warehousespaceatthelogistics’forstorageofgoodscarteddirectatthesecenters.●Safestorageofgoods.●Controlchecksonentry&exitofgoods●Helpsitsclientstoreducefixedoverheads,increaseefficiency,cutdownvaluablemanagementtimeandoffergreatefficiency.PartⅠInternationalSupplyChain上一页返回Itclassifiesthedecisionsforsupplychainmanagementintotwobroadcategories--strategicandoperational.Asthetermimplies,strategicdecisionsaremadetypicallyoveralongertimehorizon.Thesearecloselylinkedtothecorporatestrategy(theysometimes{itare}thecorporatestrategy),andguidesupplychainpoliciesfromadesignperspective.Ontheotherhand,operationaldecisionsareshortterm,andfocusonactivitiesoveraday-to-daybasis.Theeffortinthesetypesofdecisionsistoeffectivelyandefficientlymanagetheproductflowinthe“strategically”plannedsupplychain.LocationDecisionsThegeographicplacementofproductionfacilities,stockingpoints,andsourcingpointsisthenaturalfirststepincreatingasupplychain.Thelocationoffacilitiesinvolvesacommitmentofresourcestoalong-termplan.Oncethesize,number,andlocationofthesearedetermined,soarethepossiblepathsbywhichtheproductflowsthroughtothefinalcustomer.Thesedecisionsareofgreatsignificancetoafirmsincetheyrepresentthebasicstrategyforaccessingcustomermarkets,andwillhaveaconsiderableimpactonrevenue,cost,andlevelofservice.PartⅡSupplyChainDecisions下一页返回Thesedecisionsshouldbedeterminedbyanoptimizationroutinethatconsidersproductioncosts,taxes,dutiesanddutydrawback,tariffs,localcontent,distributioncosts,productionlimitations,etc.Althoughlocationdecisionsareprimarilystrategic,theyalsohaveimplicationsonanoperationallevel.ProductionDecisionsThestrategicdecisionsincludewhatproductstoproduce,andwhichplantstoproducethemin,allocationofsupplierstoplants,plantstoDC’s,andDC’stocustomermarkets.Asbefore,thesedecisionshaveabigimpactontherevenues,costsandcustomerservicelevelsofthefirm.Thesedecisionsassumetheexistenceofthefacilities,butdeterminetheexactpath(s)throughwhichaproductflowstoandfromthesefacilities.Anothercriticalissueisthecapacityofthemanufacturingfacilities--andthislargelydependthedegreeofverticalintegrationwithinthefirm.Operationaldecisionsfocusondetailedproductionscheduling.Thesedecisionsincludetheconstructionofthemasterproductionschedules,schedulingproductiononmachines,andequipmentmaintenance.Otherconsiderationsincludeworkloadbalancing,andqualitycontrolmeasuresataproductionfacility.PartⅡSupplyChainDecisions上一页下一页返回InventoryDecisionsTheserefertomeansbywhichinventoriesaremanaged.Inventoriesexistateverystageofthesupplychainaseitherrawmaterial,semi-finishedorfinishedgoods.Theycanalsobein-processbetweenlocations.Theirprimarypurposeistobufferagainstanyuncertaintythatmightexistinthesupplychain.Sinceholdingofinventoriescancostanywherebetween20to40percentoftheirvalue,theirefficientmanagementiscriticalinsupplychainoperations.Itisstrategicinthesensethattopmanagementsetsgoals.However,mostresearchershaveapproachedthemanagementofinventoryfromanoperationalperspective.Theseincludedeploymentstrategies(pushversuspull),controlpolicies-thedeterminationoftheoptimallevelsoforderquantitiesandreorderpoints,andsettingsafetystocklevels,ateachstockinglocation.Theselevelsarecritical,sincetheyareprimarydeterminantsofcustomerservicelevels.PartⅡSupplyChainDecisions上一页下一页返回TransportationDecisionsThemodechoiceaspectofthesedecisionsisthemorestrategicones.Thesearecloselylinkedtotheinventorydecisions,sincethebestchoiceofmodeisoftenfoundbytrading-offthecostofusingtheparticularmodeoftransportwiththeindirectcostofinventoryassociatedwiththatmode.Whileairshipmentsmaybefast,reliable,andwarrantlessersafetystocks,theyareexpensive.Meanwhileshippingbyseaorrailmaybemuchcheaper,buttheynecessitateholdingrelativelylargeamountsofinventorytobufferagainsttheinherentuncertaintyassociatedwiththem.Thereforecustomerservicelevelsandgeographiclocationplayvitalrolesinsuchdecisions.Sincetransportationismorethan30percentofthelogisticscosts,operatingefficientlymakesgoodeconomicsense.Shipmentsizes(consolidatedbulkshipmentsversusLot-for-Lot),routingandschedulingofequipmentareakeyineffectivemanagementofthefirm’stransportstrategy.SupplyChainModelingApproachesClearly,eachoftheabovetwolevelsofdecisionsrequireadifferentperspective.Thestrategicdecisionsare,forthemostpart,globalor“allencompassing”inthattheytrytointegratevariousaspectsofthesupplychain.PartⅡSupplyChainDecisions上一页下一页返回Consequently,themodelsthatdescribethesedecisionsarehuge,andrequireaconsiderableamountofdata.Oftenduetotheenormityofdatarequirements,andthebroadscopeofdecisions,thesemodelsprovideapproximatesolutionstothedecisionstheydescribe.Theoperationaldecisions,meanwhile,addressthedaytodayoperationofthesupplychain.Thereforethemodelsthatdescribethemareoftenveryspecificinnature.Duetotheirnarrowperspective,thesemodelsoftenconsidergreatdetailandprovideverygood,ifnotoptimal,solutionstotheoperationaldecisions.NetworkDesignMethodsAstheverynamesuggests,thesemethodsdeterminethelocationofproduction,stocking,andsourcingfacilities,andpathstheproduct(s)takethroughthem.Suchmethodstendtobelargescale,andusedgenerallyattheinceptionofthesupplychain.Theearliestworkinthisarea,althoughtheterm“supplychain”wasnotinvogue,wasbyGeoffrionandGraves[1974].Theyintroduceamulti-commoditylogisticsnetworkdesignmodelforoptimizingannualizedfinishedproductflowsfromplantstotheDC’stothefinalcustomers.PartⅡSupplyChainDecisions上一页下一页返回GeoffrionandPowers[1993]latergiveareviewoftheevolutionofdistributionstrategiesoverthepasttwentyyears,describinghowthedescendantsoftheabovemodelcanaccommodatemoreechelonsandcrosscommoditydetail.Clearly,thesenetwork-designbasedmethodsaddvaluetothefirminthattheylaydownthemanufacturinganddistributionstrategiesfarintothefuture.Itisimperativethatfirmsatonetimeoranothermakesuchintegrateddecisions,encompassingproduction,location,inventory,andtransportation,andsuchmodelsarethereforeindispensable.Althoughtheabovereviewshowsconsiderablepotentialforthesemodelsasstrategicdeterminantsinthefuture,theyarenotwithouttheirshortcomings.Theirverynatureforcestheseproblemstobeofaverylargescale.Theyareoftendifficulttosolvetooptimality.Furthermore,mostofthemodelsinthiscategoryarelargelydeterministicandstaticinnature.Additionally,thosethatconsiderstochasticelementsareveryrestrictiveinnature.Insum,theredoesnotseemtoyetbeacomprehensivemodelthatisrepresentativeofthetruenatureofmaterialflowsinthesupplychain.PartⅡSupplyChainDecisions上一页下一页返回RoughCutMethodsThesemodelsformthebulkofthesupplychainliterature,andtypicallydealwiththemoreoperationalortacticaldecisions.Mostoftheintegrativeresearch(fromasupplychaincontext)intheliteratureseemstotakeonaninventorymanagementperspective.Infact,theterm“SupplyChain”firstappearsintheliteratureasaninventorymanagementapproach.Thethrustoftheroughcutmodelsisthedevelopmentofinventorycontrolpolicies,consideringseverallevelsorechelonstogether.Thesemodelshavecometobeknownas“multi-level”or“multi-echelon”inventorycontrolmodels.ForareviewthereaderisdirectedtoVollmanetal.[1992].Multi-echeloninventorytheoryhasbeenverysuccessfullyusedinindustry.Cohenetal.[1990]describe“OPTIMIZER”,oneofthemostcomplexmodelstodate-tomanageIBM’ssparepartsinventory.Theydevelopefficientalgorithmsandsophisticateddatastructurestoachievelargescalesystemsintegration.PartⅡSupplyChainDecisions上一页下一页返回Althoughcurrentresearchinmulti-echelonbasedsupplychaininventoryproblemsshowsconsiderablepromiseinreducinginventorieswithincreasedcustomerservice,thestudieshaveseveralnotablelimitations.First,thesestudieslargelyignoretheproductionsideofthesupplychain.Theirstartingpointinmostcasesisafinishedgoodsstockpile,andpoliciesaregiventomanagetheseeffectively.Sinceproductionisanaturalpartofthesupplychain,thereseemstobeaneedwithmodelsthatincludetheproductioncomponentinthem.Second,evenonthedistributionside,almostallpublishedresearchassumesanarborescencestructure,i.e.eachsitereceivesre-supplyfromonlyonehigherlevelsitebutcandistributetoseverallowerlevels.Third,researchershavelargelyfocusedontheinventorysystemonly.Inlogistics-systemtheory,transportationandinventoryareprimarycomponentsoftheorderfulfillmentprocessintermsofcostandservicelevels.Therefore,companiesmustconsiderimportantinterrelationshipsamongtransportation,inventoryandcustomerserviceindeterminingtheirpolicies.PartⅡSupplyChainDecisions上一页下一页返回Fourth,mostofthemodelsunderthe“inventorytheoretic”paradigmareveryrestrictiveinnature,i.e.,mostlytheyrestrictthemselvestocertainwellknownformsofdemandorleadtimeorboth,oftenquitecontrarytowhatisobserved.PartⅡSupplyChainDecisions上一页返回ThiscaseisaboutatransactiononArtandCraftgoodsbetweenaCanadiancompanyandShenzhenTextilesImport&ExportCooperation,China.TheCanadianpart,Johnson&Company,hasdoneconsiderablebusinesswithChinesefirmsformorethan10years,andithasmanyyearsofexperienceinthisline.Throughexchangeoffaxesande-mails,acontractwassignedbetweenthetwopartiescovering2,000piecesofItem12&19productsatUSD15.00perpieceCFRVancouver.Afteraperiodofbusinesscontactbetweenthem,bothsidesfoundwhatsatisfiedwitheachother.TheCanadianpartbroughtaboutasuggestionofbeinganexclusiveagencyforChinesepart.Thentheystarttodiscussthematter.11/15,InJohnson&Company854GreenWoodStreetVancouver,CanadaWritingSkillⅠATransactiononArtandCraftGoods下一页返回Fax:456-367890Telex:4708897E-mail:jbl@November15,2009Yourref:Ourref:03345ShenzhenTextilesImport&ExportCorp.Shenzhen,Guangdong,People’sRepublicofChinaGentlemen:WearelargeTextilesImport&ExportCorporationinVancouver,Canada.Duringthepastmore10yearswedidconsiderablebusinesswithfirmsinShanghai,Beijing,Xi’an,HongKong,etc.WritingSkillⅠATransactiononArtandCraftGoods上一页下一页返回FromtheInternet,weknowthatyouareoneoftheleadingdealersofChinesetextilesandartandcraftgoodsinGuangdongprovince.Wehavemanyyearsofexperiencedealinginthesegoods,andhaveextensiveconnectionsinthisline.Atpresentweareinterestedinyourproductsandhopetoestablishbusinessrelationswithyou.Weareexpectingyourfavorablereply.Yourssincerely,Johnson&Company(Signed)…GeneralManagerWritingSkillⅠATransactiononArtandCraftGoods上一页返回Multinationalcorporationsareredesigningtheirorganizationalstructurefromahierarchicmulti-domesticstructureintoaglobalnetwork.Usingthecontingencytheoryframework,weidentifythereasonsforthischange,optimalstructuresandthepotentialcost/benefitstobeexpected.Inaddition,wealsoindicatehowsupplychainslearnandadapttothedynamicglobalenvironment.Thesefindingscanhelppractitionersgainabetterunderstandingofinternationalsupplychainsandprovideatheoreticalmodelforacademicianstoconductfuturestudies.Inthelasttwodecades,competitionhaschangeddramaticallywiththeopeningupoftradebarriersregionallyandglobally.Localcompaniesinbothdevelopinganddevelopedcountriesarebeingnowexposedtoincreasedcompetitionfromanewsetofcompetitorsthatcanexploitthecomparativeadvantageofseveralcountriessimultaneously.Addingtothelocalcompanies’problemsisthegrowingvolatilityofthebusinessenvironmentduetothelargernumberofinternationalplayers,rapidchangesintechnologyandshorterproductlifecycles.PartⅢLearningandEvolvingNetworks下一页返回Firmshavebeguntoimplementtwostrategiesinordertoremaincompetitive:(1)byseekingsuppliesandproductionsonaglobalscale,and(2)reducingvalue-addedoperationsin-houseviaoutsourcingandstrategicalliances.Bysourcinginternationallymultinationalscantakeadvantageoftheuniqueconditionsexistinginthecountries,suchaslowwages,rawmaterialavailability,andproximitytomarkets.Inaddition,thisdistributedsystemnowgivesfirmstheflexibilitytoreacttotheincreasedvolatilityintechnologyandmarketplace.Itrequirestransformationoftheorganizationandpropermanagementofsupplychainstobesuccessful.Initially,AmericanfirmstooktheirideasfromtheUSandtransplantedthemtooverseaslocations,whereasJapanesefirmsinvestedinoperationsoverseastotapthelocalcost,materialavailabilityandqualityadvantages.TheEuropeanfirmsset-upmulti-domesticoperationsandletthemdeveloptheirownproducts,servicesandsupplychainsystem.Today,mostlargeAmerican,JapaneseandEuropeanMultinationalCorporations(MNCs)arenowmovingtowardthetwinstrategyofglobaldisaggregationandsupplychainmanagement.PartⅢLearningandEvolvingNetworks上一页下一页返回Contingencytheoryhasbeenextensivelyusedtodescribeorganizationalstructuresundervaryingenvironmentalconditions.Thistheoryassumesthatthereisnotone“best”structureforallconditions,butrathertheoptimumformvariesaccordingtotheunderlyingcondition.Theorganizationalstructuresareviewedtoexistonacontinuumfromamechanistic(hierarch)structureononeendtoanorganic/flatformattheotherextreme.Inbetweenthetwoforms,isarangeofstructuresadoptingavarietyofcharacteristicsofthetwoextremes;themechanisticformisprescribedwheretheenvironmentisstable.Ahierarchicstructureisquiteefficientwhentheprocessescanbestandardizedandmechanized.However,suchastructurebecomesinefficientwhentheenvironmentchangesandthestandardsandmechanismsbecomenolongerrelevant.Insuchsituations,lessformal,organicstructurewouldbemoreeffective.Muchoftheliteratureininternationaloperationsisfragmentedandisnotabletoprovideanintegrativeapproachtoamanagerwhoistryingtoapplythedualstrategiesofglobaldisaggregationandsupplychainmanagement.PartⅢLearningandEvolvingNetworks上一页下一页返回Inthiscase,amodelisdevelopedthatspecifiesthetypeofinternationaloperationandthecorrespondinglogisticsstructurebasedonthedynamicinternationalconditionsusingthecontingencytheory.InternationalOperationsStructuresThestructureofinternationaloperationscanbeviewedonacontinuumofmulti-domestic,hybridtoglobalnetworks.Ononeextremeisamulti-domesticstructure,whereasontheotherendisadistributedglobalnetwork.Mostmultinationalsdonotsetupupoperationsattheextremeends,butratherexistsomewherealongthecontinuum.Somefirmsareorganizedmorecloselytowardsamulti-domesticstructure,whileothersareclosertotheorganicglobalnetworkformthetypeofstructurewhichismostapplicableisafunctionoftheenvironmentabusinessoperateswithin.Iftheenvironmentisratherstableandclosed,amulti-domesticstructurewouldbethemostefficientform.Multi-domesticoperationsaredesignedtosource,produceandsatisfydemandinonlyonecountry.Thistypeofstructuretendstobemorehierarchicinnature;withthevariousoperationsfunctioningsomewhatindependentlyofeachotherandsolelyreportingtotheheadquarters.PartⅢLearningandEvolvingNetworks上一页下一页返回Astheenvironmentbecomesmoreopenandcorrespondinglymoredynamic,ahybridstructurewouldbemoreeffective.Ahybridstructurewouldpossiblyentailtransactionsofproducts,marketsandinformationacrosstwoorthreecountries.Forexample,withtheloweringoftradebarriersgreaterinteractionbetweenthesubsidiariesisbecomingthenorm.SuchhybridstructuresallowforexampleanoperationinMexicotosupplyfinisheditemstotheSpanishandBritishmarkets,giventhepossiblelowlaborcostcomparativeadvantage.Finally,astradebarriersfallandthebusinessenvironmentbecomesmoreopenanddynamic,anetworkstructurewouldbethemostadaptableforsuchconditions.Onthissideofthecontinuumisanetworkstructure,wheretheentirevaluechainisdistributedglobally.Thistypeofanetworktakesadvantagesofthedifferentcomparativeadvantagesamongnations.Bysourcingandproducingonaworldwidebasisandmatchingthemwiththevaluechainactivitiesofamultinational’soperationsprovidesaveryeffectiveandflexiblesystem.PartⅢLearningandEvolvingNetworks上一页下一页返回Forinstance,inbuildingcomputersystems,thesemiconductorsmightcomefromJapan,softwaredesignsfromtheUS,motherboardsfromSingapore,andthefinalassemblyperformedinMexico.PartⅢLearningandEvolvingNetworks上一页返回Multi-domesticDesignTheoptimumdesignforaclosedandstableinternationalenvironmentisahierarchicmodel,withformalrulesandregulations,centralizeddecision-makingandcontrol,servicingasinglelocalmarket,downwardcommunicationusingformalchannels,andanautocraticstyleofmanagement.Thistypeofastructureresultsinproductionordersandflowsthatarehandledinratherroutinemeanstosatisfylocaldemands.Operationsandlogisticsmanagementactivitiesaregovernedbycorporatestandards.Productcostsareusuallyreducedvialearningthelearningcurve.Sinceroutineproceduresarefollowed,thecontroloftheworkflowanddecision-makingcanbeinthehandsofcentralizedmanagement,andemployeeswithspecializedskillsmatchthenarrowlydefinedjob.AnexampleofsuchtypesofstructureswouldbethewayGoodyearbuiltfactoriesinthe1960sand1970stoaccommodatethespecificdemandsforvariouscountries.Hence,aplantinBrazilwouldonlyproducetosatisfythelocaldemand.Nomaterialordataflowoccursbetweenthesimilarsisters’plantsinothercountries.PartⅣContingencyTheory下一页返回HybridDesignBetweenthesetwoextremesofhierarchicandorganicdesignslieanumberofhybridformsthatcombineaspectsofbothtovaryingdegrees.Ifthetradebarriershavefallensomewhatandtheenvironmentismoredynamic,designcouldbesomewhatmechanistic,butwithmanagementteams,projectteamsandtaskforcesextendingoveranumberofsubsidiaries.Thistypeofastructurewouldbeusefultosolveproblemsthatcannotbesettledthroughtheformalmechanism.Inaddition,thistypeofinteractionwouldallowfornewpatternsofmaterialsandinformationflows.AnexampleforahybridstructurewouldbeNewellRubbermaidofficeproducts,whereaninjectionmoldingplantinMadison,WisconsinsuppliestomarketsintheU.S.,Canada,Mexicoandelsewhere.Inthistypeofastructure,therearededicatedplantsnoduplicationofoperations.GlobalNetworkDesignInaglobalenvironmentthatistrulydynamicwithinsignificanttradebarriers,anorganicnetworkorganizationaldesignwouldberecommended.PartⅣContingencyTheory上一页下一页返回Thisrequiresaninformalstructurewithflexibleroles,implicitmeansofcontrol,decentralizeddecision-making,organiccommunicationchannels,andfewstandardrulesandprocedures.Thisresultsinsubsidiariesthatdonothavenarrowlydefinedroles.Instead,theyhavetheflexibilitytosourceitemsfromavarietyofsupplierslocallyorinternationally.Becauseinformationhastoflowquicklybetweenthedifferentnodes,theyhavetobeinterdependentanduseinformalchannelsofcommunication.Thesupplychainnetworkhastomakeonthe-spotdecisionsconstantly.Ithasthereforetotrustandvaluethoseemployees,units,suppliersorstrategicalliesthatmakequickdecisions,evenifitmeanstakingarisk.Thisrequiresagrowth-promotingclimate,whichencouragescollectiveresponsibilityfordecisionsthroughouttheentiresupplychain.AnexampleofthisstructurecanbefoundwiththePCsuppliersintheU.S.Oftenmaterialandinformationflowstraverseseveralcountriesbetweenstrategicpartnersandsuppliers,takingadvantageoftheuniquecomparativebenefitsofthevariousnations.PartⅣContingencyTheory上一页下一页返回Forexample,thepowerunitcouldbeproducedinChina,thechipscomefromJapanandthemotherboardsaresourcedfromSingapore.TheseitemsarethenassembledinMexicotakingadvantageofthelowlaborcostsandproximitytotheU.S.Thefinalpackaging,configurationandtestsarecompletedintheU.S.Thecontingencymodelprovidesaframeworktodeterminetheoptimalstructurebasedontheinternationalenvironment.Itisalistofthecriticalfactorsandtheoutcomes(operationalandeconomic)forthemulti-domestichierarchicandglobalnetworkforms.Theseissueswillbenextlookedintorelativetotheinternationalenvironmenttoday.Therapidlychangingmarketsandtechnologyenvironmentrequiretheorganizationstructuretobetransformed.Theglobaleconomyischangingdramatically.Withtheincreasedstandardoflivinginnewlyindustrializedanddevelopingcountries,multinationalshavemoremarketstotapinto.P