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Divisionone:GreekcultureandRomanculture

希腊、罗马文化

I.Greekculture希腊文化

1.WhatarethemajorelementsinEuropeanculture?

Therearetwomainelements------theGreco-Romanelementandthe

Judeo-Christianelement.

2.WhatwerethemainfeaturesofancientGreeksociety?

InGreeksociety,onlyadultmalecitizenhadrealpowerandthecitizenshipwasa

setofrightswhichamaninheritedfromhisfather.TheeconomyofAthensrested

onanimmenseamountofslavelabor.Slavesworkedfortheirmasters.The

exploitationwasaserioussocialproblem.TheGreekslovedsports.Theyoften

tookpartinthecontestsofsportsinOlympusMount,thusOlympicGamescame

intobeing.

3.WhatdidHomerdo?WhyisheimportantinthehistoryofEuropean

literature?

HedepictedthegreatGreekmenwholivedintheperiod1200-1100B.C.andwars

happeningatthattime.Asanauthorofepics,heemployedfineliterarylanguage

todescribewarsandmen,eventhoughtheyweredull.Hestoodinthepeekof

Greekliteratureandexertedagreatinfluenceonhisfollowers.

4.WhoweretheoutstandingdramatistsofancientGreece?Whatimportant

playsdideachofthemwrite?

Aeschylus,SophoclesandEuripideswerethreeoutstandingdramatistsofancient

Greece.

Aeschylus:PrometheusBound,Persians,Agamemnon

Sophocles:OedipustheKing,Electra,Antigone

Euripides:Andromache,Medea,TrojanWomen

5.Weretherehistoriansthen?Whowerethey?Whatdideachofthemwrite

about?

Yes,thereare.TheywereHerodotusandThucydides.

HerodotuswroteaboutthewarsbetweenGreeksandPersians.Thucydideswrote

aboutthewarbetweenAthensandSpartaandbetweenAthensandSyracuse.

6.Wouldyousaythatphilosophywashighlydevelopedthen?Whowerethe

majorphilosophers?

No,Iwouldn't.Becausethosephilosophicalideaswereonlyidealismorsimple

materialismormetaphysics.Socrates,PlatoandAristotlewerethemajor

philosophersatthattime.

7.DidSocrateswriteanybook?Howthendoweknowabouthim?What

distinguishedhisphilosophy?

No,hedidn't.WeknowSocrateschieflythroughwhatPlatorecordedofhimin

thefamousDialogueswrittenbyPlato.Heconsideredthatphilosophyrestedwith

thedissectofoneselfandvirtuewashighworthoflife.Hismethodofargument,

byquestionsandanswers,wasknownasthedialecticalmethod.

8.TellsomeofPlato*sideas.Whydopeoplecallhimanidealist?

(1)Menhaveknowledgebecauseoftheexistenceofcertaingeneraluideas,5,like

beauty,truth,andgoodness.(2)Weshouldnotlookatthethingswhicharenot

seen:forthethingswhicharenotseeneternal.Becauseheemphasizedthe

importanceof“ideas“andbelievedthat“thought”hadcreatedtheworld,people

callhimanidealist.

9.InwhatimportantwayswasAristotledifferentfromPlato?Whataresome

ofAristotle'sworksthatarestillinfluentialtoday?

(1)Aristotleemphasizeddirectobservationofnatureandinsistedthattheory

shouldfollowfact.ThisisdifferentfromPlato'srelianceonsubjectivethinking.

(2)Hethoughtthat“idea"andmattertogethermadeconcreteindividualrealities

inwhichhedifferedfromPlatowhoheldthatideashadhigherrealitythanthe

politicalworld.Hissignificantworksincludes:Ethics,PoliticsandRhetoric.

10.Whoweresomeoftheotherphilosophersactiveinthatperiod?Doesthe

word“Epicurean“initsmodernsenseconveythetruemeaningofthe

philosophyoftheancientEpicureans?Whatweretheirviewsonpleasure?

(1)TheywereHeracleitue,Democritus,Diogenes,Pyrrhon,EpicurusandZeno.

(2)No,itdoesn't.TheancientEpicureansbelievedpleasuretobethehighestworth

oflife,butbypleasuretheymeant,notsensualenjoymentbutthatattainedbythe

practiceofvirtue.Butthisideawasmisledbymodernpeople,intheirsense,the

word“Epicurean“hascometomeanindulgenceinluxuriousliving.

11.SaysomethingaboutGreeksculpture,potteryandarchitecture.Whatwas

themostfamousGreektemple?Isitstillthere?

(1)AlongwiththeformationofGreekcivilization,Greeksculpture,potteryand

architecturegotmanygreatachievements.Greeksputintoworksofartthethings

theyadmiredandworshiped,thescientificrulestheydiscovered.Greekart

evolvedfromthearchaicperiodtotheclassicalperiodwhichmarkeditsmaturity.

(2)themostfamoustemplewastheAcropolisatAthens.(3)Yes,itisstillthere.

12.GivesomeexamplestoshowtheenormousinfluenceofGreekcultureon

Englishliterature.

Someexamples:

(1)AFreudianterm“OedipusComplex^^of19thcenturyoriginatingfromaGreek

tragedyinwhichkingOedipusunknowinglykilledhisfatherandmarriedhis

mother.(2)Intheearlypartofthe19lhcentury,inEnglandalone,threeyoung

RomanticpoetsexpressedtheiradmirationofGreekcultureinworkswhichhave

themselvesbecomeclassics:Byron5sIsleofGreece,Shelley'sHellasand

PrometheusUnboundandKeats'sOdeonaGrecianUrn.(3)Inthe20thcentury,

thereareHomericparallelsintheIrishmanJamesJoyce'smodernistmasterpiece

Ulysses.

II.Romanculture罗马文化

1.WhatdidtheRomanhaveincommonwiththeGreeks?Andwhatwasthe

chiefdifferencebetweenthem?

(1)TheRomanshadalotincommonwiththeGreeks.Bothpeopleshadtraditions

rootedintheideaofthecitizen-assembly,hostiletomonarchyandtoservility.

Theirreligionswerealikeenoughformostoftheirdeitiestobereadilyidentified

—GreekZeuswithRomanJupiter,GreekAphroditewithRomanVenus,andso

on-andtheirmythstobefused.Theirlanguagesworkedinsimilarwaysand

wereultimatelyrelated,bothbeingmembersoftheIndo-Europeanlanguage

familywhichstretchesfromBangladeshtoIceland.

(2)Therewasonebigdifference.TheRomansbuiltupavastempire.TheGreeks

didn't,exceptedforthebriefmomentofAlexander'sconquests,whichsoon

disintegrated.

2.ExplainPaxRomana.

Intheyear27B.C.,Octaviustooksupremepowerasemperorwiththetitleof

Augustus.Twocenturieslater,theRomanempirereacheditsgreatestextentinthe

NorthandEast.Theemperorsmainlyreliedonastrongarmy—thefamousRoman

Legionsandaninfluentialbureaucracytoexerttheirrules.ThustheRomans

enjoyedalongperiodofpeacelasting200years.Thisremarkablephenomenonin

thehistoryisknownasPaxRomana.

3.WhatcontributionsdidtheRomansmaketotheruleoflaw?

InRoman'searlieststage,onlyanumberofpatriciansknewthecustomarylegal

procedure.Whentheruleswereputintowritinginthemiddleofthethirdcentury

B.C.itmarkedavictoryfortheplebeians.Therewasfurtherdevelopmentoflaw

undertheemperorsuntilitwascodified,eventuallytobecomethecoreofmodem

civilandcommerciallawinmanyWesterncountries.

4.WhoweretheimportantprosewritersinancientRome?Whatdoes

“Ciceronian"mean?DidCicerowritethatkindofrhetoricalproseallthe

time?

<1>MarcusTulliusCiceroandJuliusCaesarweretwoimportantprosewriters.

<2>CiceronianmeansCicero'seloquentoratoricalmannerofwriting,Whichhas

hadanenormousinfluenceonthedevelopmentofEuropeanprose.<3>No,he

didn't.BecauseCiceroappearsasadifferentmanwithadifferentstyle,farless

rhetorical,butcolloquialandintimate.

5.GivetheexampleofthetersestyleofJuliusCaesar'sprose.

Anexample:Icame,Isaw,Iconquered(modelsofsuccinctLatin).

6.WhowasLucretius?Whatdidhedo?

(l)LucretiuswasapoetofancientRome.(2)HewrotethephilosophicalpoemOn

theNatureofThingtoexpoundtheideasofEpicurustheGreekatomist.

7.WhatisthebookforwhichVirgilhasbeenfamousthroughoutthe

countries?InwhatwaysisthebooklinkedwiththeGreekpast?

(l)ThebookwasAeneid.(2)ThestorywasaboutAeneas,oneoftheprincesof

Troy,whoescapedfromthatburningcitywhenitfelltotheGreeks,tocarryon

theTrojancauseinanewplace,Rome.Hedidn'tgoalone,but,carryinghisfather

onhisshouldersandleadinghislittlesonbythehand,afamilygroupofthree

generationsmovedtogether.ThusinthiswaythebookislinkedwiththeGreek

past.

8.WhydowesayAeneusisatrulytragichero?

BecauseAeneashadtobetraythegreatpassionofhislife,hisloveforDido,queen

ofCarthage,sothathecouldfulfillhishistoricmission.

9.WhatisthechiefRomanachievementinarchitecture?Givesome

examples.

(l)TheRomansweregreatengineers.Theycoveredtheirworldfromoneendto

theotherwithroads,bridges,aqueducts,theatresandarenas.

(2)Someexamples:

A.ThePantheon:thegreatestthebestpreservedRomantemplebuiltin27B.C..

B.PontduGard:itisanexceptionallywell-preservedaqueductthatspansawide

valleyinsouthernFrance.

lO.Whyarethewall-paintingsoftheancientRomansstillsignificanttous

today?

RomanpaintingwasstronglyinfluencedbytheartofGreece.Anditalsohad

pecularitiesofitsown.Unfortunatelymuchofthepaintingnolongerexists.There

are,however,somewall-paintingsfromPompeiiandothertownsnearNaples.

Thesewall-paintingsincludestilllives,landscapepaintingsandfigurepaintings.

AmongthemwereLadyMusicianandYoungGirl,theMaidenGatheringFlowers

andtheLandscape.

Divisiontwo:theBibleandChristianity

基督教及其《圣经》

1.WhatwastheHebrew'smajorcontributiontoworldcivilization?

ThehistoryoftheHebrewswashandeddownorallyfromonegenerationto

anotherintheformoffolktalesandstories,whichwererecordedlaterintheOld

Testament,whichstilllaterbecamethefirstpartoftheChristianBible.Thusthe

Hebrewsmadeoneofthegreatestcontributionstotheworldcivilization.

2.WhydowesayJudaismandChristianityarecloselyrelated?

JudaismandChristianityarecloselyrelated:(DitwastheJewishtraditionwhich

gavebirthtoChristianity;(2)bothoriginatedinPalestine-thehubofmigration

andtraderoute,whichledtoexchangeideasoverwideareas.

3.Whendidthegreatexodustakeplace?

Around1300B.C.,Moses,thefamousHebrewleader,wenttoseethepharaohof

Egypt,tellinghimthatYahwehwantedthepharaohtoendHebrewslaveryandlet

theHebrewleaveEgypt.WiththisbegantheExodus,whichlastedfortyyears.

4.WhowasMoses?WhatdidhedofortheHebrews?

MoseswasafamousHebrewleader.Around1300B.C.,MosesledtheHebrewsto

leaveEgyptforthePromisedLand.ThiswascalledtheExoduswhichlastedforty

years.WhenthewanderingHebrewsleftthedesertandenteredthemountainous

Sinai,Mosesclimbedtothetopofthemountaintoreceiveformgodmessage,

whichcametobeknownastheTenCommandments.Hediedshortlybeforethe

Hebrewsarrivedattheirhomeland.

5.WhataretheTenCommandmentsabout?

TheTenCommandmentareasetofrulesMosescommandsallIsraeltoobeyin

thenameofGod:(DYahwehistheonlyGodallIsraelshouldworship;(2)Donot

carveandserveanyidoltoworship;(3)DonottakethenameofGodinvain;

(4)KeeptheSabbathdayandlaborintheothersixdays;(5)Honorandrespect

one'sparents;(6)Donotkill;(7)Donotcommitadultery;(8)Donotsteal;(9)Donot

bearfalsewitnessagainstpeople;(10)Donotdesireone'sneighbor'swife,norhis

house,norhisfield,norhisservants,norhislivestock,noranythingelse.

6.WhatwritingsmakeuptheNewTestament?

TheNewTestamentconsistsof14books.Thefouraccounts,whichwerebelieved

tohavebeenwrittenbyMatthew,Mark,Luke,andJohn,fourofJesus'early

followers,arethefirstpartoftheNewTestamentandtellofthebirth,teaching,

deathandResurrectionofJesus.Thencome:theActsoftheApostles,ahistoryof

theearlyChristianmovement:theEpistles,orletterstothechurchgroupsaround

theMediterranean;andlastlythebookofRevelation,avisionaryaccountofthe

finaltriumphofGod'spurpose.

7.HowdidtherelationsbetweenChristiansandtheRomangovernment

change?

TheearlyChristianweresubjecttopersecutionsbytheRomangovernment.Jesus

ChristwascrucifiedbytheRomangovernment.AfterJesusdied,hisdisciplinesSt.

PeterandSt.PaulsufferedmartyrdomundertheRomanEmperorNeroabout65

A.D.NeroevenburnedChristiansinhisgardenin64A.D.For240yearsafterthe

martyrdomsofPeterandPaul,persecutionsofChristianscontinued.Thechief

persecutionswereunderNero,Domitian,Trajan,ValerianandDiocletian.Despite

thesepersecutions,ChristianscontinuedtospreadsteadilyovertheMediterranean

region.Itbegantodrawmenandwomenfromallclassesandtheattitudeofthe

RomangovernmenttowardChristianitybegantochange.By305Diocletiangave

uphisefforttodestroytheyoungreligion.WhenConstantineIwonthethrone

fromhisrivals,hebelievedthatGodhadhelpedhim,andin313heissuedthe

EdictofMilanwhichgrantedreligiousfreedomtoallandmadeChristianitylegal.

UnderConstantineChristianitymadegreatcontributionoftheempire.The

emperorswhofollowedConstantineIcontinuedpro-Christianpolicies.In392

A.D.,EmperorTheodosiusmadeChristianitytheofficialreligionoftheempire

andoutlawedallotherreligions.NowChristianityhadchangedfromanobjectof

oppressiontoaweaponinthehandsoftherulingclasstocrushtheiropponents.

8.HowdidChristianmonkshelpWesterncivilizationsurvive?

TheChristianmonkshelpedwesterncivilizationsurviveinmanyways:(DThe

ChristianmonksspreadChristianitytotheMediterraneanregionandsomeofthem

evensufferedmartyrdom;(2)SomemonkstranslatedtheOldTestamentintoGreek

andSt.JerometranslatedthewholeBibleintoLatin.LatersomesuchasJohn

WycliffeandWilliamTyndaletranslatedtheBibleintothevernacular;(3)Inthe

MiddleAges,peopleinWesternEuropeweremainlydividedintothreeclasses:

clergy,lordsandpeasants.Ofthesethreeclasses,theonlyliteratesectionwasthe

clergy.TheChristianmonksdidalottohelppreserveandtransmitalargepartof

thetraditionalheritageofthewesternculture.TheynotonlytranslatedtheBible

intoLatinortheVernacularbutalsocopiedortranslatedtheancientworksintothe

vernacular,suchasthemonksinthesemonasteriessetupbyCharlemagneand

AlfredtheGreat.

9.WhydowesaytheBiblehasshapedWesternculturemoredecisivelythan

anythingelseeverwritten?

Judeo-Christiantraditionconstitutesoneofthetwomajorcomponentsof

Europeanculture.TheBiblewhichisvirtuallyrelatedtoeveryphaseofhumanlife

greatlyinfluencespeople'sdailylife,especiallyintheMiddleAgeswhenalmost

everyonewasaChristian;TheBiblehasgreatimpactuponwesternliterature.For

alongperiodoftime,theLatinBiblewasacceptedastheauthorityandLatinwas

officiallanguageoftheRomanCatholicChurch,somostEuropeliteratureatthat

timewasinLatin.BesidesitisgenerallyacceptedthattheEnglishBibleand

ShakespearearetwogreatreservoirsofModemEnglish.Furthermore,theuseof

Biblicalthemeshasbeenaliterarytradition.InfactfewgreatEnglishand

Americanwritersofthe17,h,18th,19Ihand20lhcenturycanbereadand

appreciatedwithsatisfactionwithoutasufficientknowledgeoftheBible;The

studyoftheChristianteachingespeciallytheBiblehasbecomeanimportant

branchofknowledge—scholasticismwhichhasbeenprevalentforcenturies;The

Biblehasalsoinfluencedwesternphilosophiesandscience.ThustheBiblehas

shapedwesternculturemoredecisivelythananythingelseeverwritten.

Divisionthree:TheMiddleAges

中世纪

1.WhathappenedinWesternEuropeafterthedeclineoftheRoman

Empire?

AftertheRomanEmpirelostitspredominance,agreatmanyGermanicKingdoms

begantogrowintothenationsknowasEngland,France,Italy,andGermanyinits

place.ThesenationsofWesternEuropewereinthesceneoffrequentwarsand

invasions.Thepoliticalunityhadgivenwaytowidespreaddestructionand

confusion.Hungeranddiseasekilledmanylivesandvillagefellintoruinand

greatareasoflandlaywaste.Therewasnocentralgovernmenttokeeptheorder.

TheonlyorganizationthatseemedtouniteEuropewastheChristianchurch.

ChristianitywasalmosttheallandtheoneofMedievallivesinwesternEurope

andtookleadinpolitics,law,art,andlearningforhundredsyears.

2.Whatweretheculturalcharacteristicsoftheperiodfrom500to1000?

Aboveall,theculturalcharactersofthisperiodweretheheritageandachievement

ofRomancultureandtheemergenceofHebrewandGothicculture.

3.WhowasCharlesMartel?

CharlesMartelwasaFrankishrulerwhogavehissoldiersestatesknownasfiefs

asarewardfortheirservicesin732.

4.Whatwastherelationshipbetweenlordandvassal?

Lordsgrantedpartsoftheirlandsknownasfiefstovassals.Inreturn,thevassals

promisedtofightforthelords.

5.Intowhatthreegroupswerepeopledividedunderfeudalism?

Underfeudalism,peopleoftheirWesternEuropeweremainlydividedintothree

classes:clergy,lords,andpeasants.

6.Whatwasthedifferentbetweenaserfandafreeman?

Aserfhadnolandandnofreedom.Hewasbondtothelandwherehehadbeen

bom.Afreemanwasapeasantwhousuallywasaworkerwhomadetheploughs,

shodthehorses,andmadeharnessesforoxenandhorses.

7.WhatistheimportanceoftheusingofvernacularlanguagesinMedieval

literature?

IntheMiddleAges,some“nationalepics“werewritteninvernacular

language—thelanguageofvariousnationalstatesthatcameintobeingatthat

period,andsomemonksadvocatedtranslatingtheBibleinvernacular.Literary

workswerenolongerallwritteninLatin.Itwasthestartingpointofagradual

transitionofEuropeanliteraturefromLatinculturethatwasthecombinationofa

varietyodnationalcharacteristics.

8.InwhatwaysdidGothicartdifferfromRomanesqueart?

(DAlthoughGothicwasanoutgrowthoftheRomanesque,itwasgivendirections

byadifferentaestheticandphilosophicalspiritandreflectedamuchmoreordered

feudalsocietywithfullconfidence.

(2)Romanesquearchitectureischaracterizedbymassiveness,solidity,and

monumentalitywithanoverallblockyappearance.Sculptureandpainting,

primaryinchurches,developedawonderfulunitywitharchitecture.Botharts

oftenareimbuedwithsymbolismandallegory.Theyarenotbasedonnatural

formsbutusedeliberatedistortionsforexpressiveimpact.

(3)Gothiccathedralssoaredhigh,theirwindows,archedandtowersreaching

heavenward,flingingtheirpassionagainstthesky.Theyweredecoratedwith

beautifulstainedglasswindowsandsculpturesmorelifelikethananysince

ancientRome.

9.WhatwasthemeritwhichCharlemagneandAlfredtheGreatshare?

BothCharlemagneandAlfredtheGreatcontributiongreatlytotheEuropean

culture.Bothofthemencouragedlearningbysettingupmonasteryschools.The

scholarsinAlfredtheGreat'smonasteriestranslatedtheLatinworksintothe

vernacular.Thusbothhelpedpreservetheancientclassicsandculture.

Divisionfour:RenaissanceandReformation

文艺复兴与宗教改革

1.WhatmadeItalythebirthplaceoftheRenaissance?

Becauseofitsgeographicalposition,foreigntradedevelopedearlyinItaly.This

broughtItalyintocontactwithotherculturesandgaverisetourbaneconomyand

helpedItalyaccumulatewealthwhichwasanessentialfactorforthefloweringof

artandliterature.

Fortwocenturiesbeginningfromthelate15,hcentury,Florencewasthegolden

citywhichgavebirthtoawholegenerationofpoets,scholars,artistsandsculptors.

TherewasinFlorencearevivalofinterestinclassicallearningandrisingof

humanistideas.Andtospreadthenewideas,librariesandacademieswere

founded.Inthe15thcenturyprintingwasinventedandhelpedtospreadhumanist

ideas.

2.Whatarethemainelementsofhumanism?Howaretheseelements

reflectedinartandliteratureduringtheItalianRenaissance?

HumanististheessenceofRenaissance.Humanistsinrenaissancebelievedthat

humanbeingshadrightstopursuewealthandpleasureandtheyadmiresthe

beautyofhumanbody.Thisbeliefrancountertothemedievalasceticalideaof

povertyandstoicism,andshiftedman'sinterestfromChristianitytohumanity,

fromreligiontophilosophy,fromheaventoearth,fromthebeautyofGodtothe

beautyofhumaninallitsjoy,sensesandfeeling.

ThephilosophyofhumanismisreflectedintheartandliteratureduringtheItalian

RenaissanceintheliteratureworksofBoccaccioandPetrarchandintheartof

Giotto,Brunelleschi,Donatello,Giorgione,daVinci,Michelangelo,Raphael,and

Titian,etc.Intheirworkstheydidnotstressdeathandotherworldbutcallonman

toliveandworkforthepresent.

3.WhydowelookuponPetrarchasthefatherofmodernpoetry?

Petrarchwasaprominentfigureofhistime,agreatfigureinItalianliteratureand

oneofthegreathumanistsduringtheRenaissance.Hehaswrittennumerouslyrics,

sonnetsandcanzonets.Petrarchrejectedmedievalcountryconventionsandsang

fortrueloveandearthlyhappinessinhissonnets.Latersonnetsbecameavery

importantliteraryformofpoetryinEuropeandalotofpoets,suchasShakespeare,

Spencer,andMrs.Browning,wereindebtedtohim.Thuswelookuponhimasthe

fatherofmodempoetry

4.HowdidItalianRenaissanceartandarchitecturebreakawayfrom

medievaltraditions?

TheItalianRenaissanceartandarchitectureradicallybrokeawayfromthe

medievalmethodsofrepresentingthevisibleworld.Comparedwiththelatter,the

formerhasthefollowingdistinctfeatures:

(DArtbrokeawayfromthedominationofchurchandartistwhousedtobe

craftsmencommissionedbythechurchbecameaseparatestratadoingnobleand

creativeworks;

(2)Themesofpaintingandarchitecturechangedfrompurelycelestialrealm

focusingonthestoriesoftheBible,ofGodandMarytoanappreciationofall

aspectsofnatureandman;

(3)TheartistsstudiedtheruinsofRomanandGreektemplesandputmanyofthe

principlesofancientcivilizationintotheirworks;

(4)Artistsintroducedintheirworksscientifictheoriesofanatomyandperspective.

5.InwhatwaywasDaVinciimportantduringtheRenaissance?

LeonadodaVinciwasamanofmanytalents,aRenaissancemaninthetruesense

oftheword.Hewasapainter,asculptor,anarchitect,amusician,anengineer,and

ascientistallinone.

Asanartist,hewasveryimportant.Hehaslefttotheworldfamousworkssuchas

LastSupperandMonaLisa.Thenhisexcellentuseofcontrastbetweenlightand

darknessshowedhimasanexcellentpainter.Mostimportantofall,daVincihad

profoundunderstandingofart.Inhis5000notebooks,heputdownhis

observationsoflifeandhissketchdrawing.Inhispaintinghestressedthe

expressionofemotionalstates.Hisunderstandingsofartexertedgreatinfluence

uponpaintersofhisowngenerationandgenerationstofollow.

Hewasalsoveryimportantinthescienceofmedicine.Duringhislifehedissected

morethanthirtycorpsesandwasagreatanatomistinItaly.Heplacedartinthe

serviceofanatomyasasciencebasedonextensiveresearch.

6.WhatarethedoctrinesofMartinLuther?Whatwasthesignificanceof

thereformationinEuropeancivilization?

InReformationbeganin1517,MartinLutherputforththefollowingdoctrines:

(l)HerejectedtheabsoluteauthorityoftheRomanCatholicchurchandreplaceit

withabsoluteoftheBible.PeoplecancommunicatewithGoddirectlyinsteadof

throughthechurch;

(2)Heopposedthepurchaseofindulgencesandcalledforinstitutionalreformof

thechurch;

(3)advocatedtranslatingthewholeBibleintovernacularsandmadetheBible

accessibletoeveryman;

(4)Hepreachedloveandidealsofequality,andhewasafighterfordemocracyand

nationalism,ahumanistwhohelpedtobuildacompetenteducationalsystemin

Germany.

TheReformationwassignificantintheEuropeancivilization.BeforeReformation,

Europewasessentiallyfeudalandmedieval.Inallaspectsofpolitics,economy

andspirit,itwasundertheabsoluteruleoftheRomanCatholicChurchandthe

HolyRomanEmpire.ButaftertheReformationthingsweredifferent.In

educationalandculturalmatters,themonopolyofthechurchwasbroken.In

religion,ProtestantismbroughtintobeingdifferentformsofChristianityto

challengetheabsoluteruleoftheRomanCatholicChurch.Inlanguage,the

dominantpositionofLatinhadtogivewaytothenationallanguagesasaresultof

varioustranslationsofBibleintovernacular.Inspirit,absoluteobediencebecame

out-modeandthespiritofquest,debate,wasusheredinbythereformists.Inword,

afterthereformationEuropewastotakeanewcourseofdevelopment,ascientific

revolutionwastobeunderwayandcapitalismwastosetinwithitsdynamic

economicprinciples.

7.WhatwasCounter—Reformation?WhoweretheJesuits?Aretheystill

activenow?

ThecountertheReformationandtobringbackitsvitality,theRomanCatholic

ChurchmusteredtheirforcestoexaminetheChurchinstitutionsandintroduce

reformsandimprovements.Intime,theRomanCatholicChurchdidre-establish

itselfasadynamicforceinEuropeanaffairs.Thisrecoveryofpowerisoften

calledbyhistorianstheCounter-Reformation.Theseed-bedforthisCatholic

reformationwasSpainwiththeSpanishmonarchyestablishingtheinquisitionto

carryoutcruelsuppressionofheresyandunorthodoxy.

Ignatius,aSpaniardwhodevotedhislifetodefendingtheRomanCatholicChurch,

andhisfollowerscalledthemtheJesuitsmembersoftheSocietyofJesus.

TodaytheSocietyofJesusisstillactivewithamembershipof31,000,having

institutionsinvariouspartsoftheworld.

8.WhatdidFrenchRenaissancewritersproposeintheirwritings?

(l)TheFrenchRenaissancewriterRabelaisexpressedhidideasinGargantuaand

Pantagruelthattheonlyruleofthehousewas“DoAsThouWilt”一tofollowour

naturalinstinct;

(2)Ronsardheldthatmanoflettersshouldwriteinastylethatwasclearandfree

fromuselessrhetoric;

(3)TheEssaisofMontaignerecordshisviewsonlife,deathandhisskepticism

towardsknowledge,insimple,straightforwardstyle,hisfamousmottois”What

doIknow?”

9.WhydidEnglandcomelaterthanothercountriesduringtheRenaissance?

InwhatwaywasEnglishRenaissancedifferentfromthatofother

countries?Whowerethemajorfiguresandwhattheircontributions?

BecauseoftheWarofRoseswithinthecountryanditsweakand