语言学第六章chapter6

Chapter6Pragmatics1

6.1Introduction

6.1.1Background6.1.2Definition

6.2Micropragmatics

6.2.1Reference（指称）6.2.2Dexis（指示）6.2.3Anaphora（照应）6.2.4Presupposition（预设）6.3Macropragmatics

6.3.1Speechacttheory（言语行为理论）6.3.2TheCooperativePrinciple（合作原则）6.3.3ThePolitenessPrinciple（礼貌原则）26.1IntroductionWhenadiplomatsaysyes,hemeans‘perhaps’;Whenhesaysperhaps,hemeans‘no’;Whenhesaysno,heisnotadiplomat.Whenaladysaysno,shemeans‘perhaps’;Whenshesaysperhaps,shemeans‘yes’;Whenshesaysyes,sheisnotalady.Voltaire(Quoted,inSpanish,inEscandell1993.)

speaker’smeaning/languageinuse34567大家应该也有点累了，稍作休息大家有疑问的，可以询问和交流8Amelamed[/mə‘lɑ:məd/，小学教师,Hebrewteacher]discoveringthathehadlefthiscomfortableslippersbackinthehouse,sentastudentafterthemwithanoteforhiswife.Thenotereads:`Sendmeyourslipperswiththisboy`.Whenthestudent

askedwhyhehadwritten`your`slippers,themelamedanswered:`Yold![Fool!]IfIwrote“my”slippers,shewouldread“myslippersandwouldsendherslippers.WhatcouldIdowithherslippers?SoIwrote“your”slippers,she'llread“yourslippersandsendmemine.”9Backgroundof“Pragmatics”

CharlesMorris(1903–1979)wasconcernedwiththestudyofthescienceofsigns,whichhecalledsemiotic.Hedistinguished3branchesofsemiotics（符号三分法）:10Syntaxaddressestheformalrelationsofsignstooneanother,semanticstherelationofsignstowhattheydenote,andpragmaticstherelationofsignstotheirusersandinterpreters.11Pragmaticsisthestudyoftherelationshipsbetweenlinguisticformsandtheusersofthoseforms.Inthisthree-partdistinction,onlypragmaticsallowshumansintotheanalysis.12

Definitions1“Pragmaticsisthestudyofspeaker’smeaning.”2“Pragmaticsisthestudyofcontextualmeaning”3“Pragmaticsisthestudyofhowmoregetscommunicatedthanissaid”4“Pragmaticsisthestudyoftheexpressionofrelativedistance.”(Yule:2008).13

Pragmaticsisastudyoflanguageinuse.146.2MicropramaticsIwaswaitingforthebus,buthejustdrovebywithoutstopping.Tostudythemeaningofsuchpiecesoflanguageinsmallercontextsiscalledmicropragmatics.Phenomenasuchasreference,deixis,anaphora,andpresupposition,arethetopicsinthisfield.

156.2.1ReferenceInthereferentialtheory(namingtheory),itisassumedthatthewordsweusetoidentifythingsareinsomedirectrelationshiptothosethings:(1)a:CanIlookatyourShakespeare?b:Sure,it’sontheshelfoverthere.(usenamesofpeopletorefertothings)16Thekeyprocesshereiscalledinference.Aninferenceisanyadditionalinformationusedbythehearertoconnectwhatissaidtowhatmustbemeant.Inpragmatics,theactbywhichaspeakerorwriteruseslanguagetoenableahearerorreadertoidentifysomethingiscalledreference.

176.2.2DeixisDeixis(指示),whichmeans“pointing”vialanguage,theinterpretationofmanywordsandexpressionsbyreferencetothesituationalcontextoftheutterance.Anylinguisticformusedtodothis“pointing”iscalledadeicticexpression,orindexical.

InEnglish,wordslikehere,there,this,that,now,andthen,aswellasmostpronouns,suchasI,we,you,he,her,them.(2)You’llhavetobringthatbacktomorrow,becausetheyaren’there

now.18Fivetypesofdeixis1.Persondeixis:me,you,him,them.2.Timedeixis:now,then,tonight,lastweek.3.Space/spatial/placedeixis:here,there,andyonder.4.Discoursedeixis:temporal/spatialintheprevious/nextparagraph,orHaveyouheardthisjoke?inthischapter.5.Socialdeixis:honorifics(敬语,ProfessorLi);kinshiprelationship(LiJie[李姐]inChinese

)19Amelamed[小学教师,Hebrewteacher]discoveringthathehadlefthiscomfortableslippersbackinthehouse,sentastudentafterthemwithanoteforhiswife.Thenotereads:`Sendmeyourslipperswiththisboy`.Whenthestudent

askedwhyhehadwritten`your`slippers,themelamedanswered:`Yold![Fool!]IfIwrote“my”slippers,shewouldread“myslippersandwouldsendherslippers.WhatcouldIdowithherslippers?SoIwrote“your”slippers,she'llread“yourslippersandsendmemine.”20Anaphora(照应)iscoreferenceofoneexpressionwithitsantecedent.Theantecedentprovidestheinformationnecessaryfortheexpression’sinterpretation.

Thisisoftenunderstoodasanexpression“referring”backtotheantecedent.6.2.3Anaphora21(3)A:CanIborrowyourdictionary?B:Yeah,it’sonthetable.antecedent,anaphororanaphoricexpression.indirectanaphororbridgingreference:(4)Iwalkedintotheroom.Thewindowslookedouttothebay.226.2.4PresuppositionPresupposition

(预设):

Theinformationthataspeakerassumestobealreadyknown.(TheCambridgeEncyclopaediaofLanguage,1987)

（5）Susan’ssisterboughttwohouses.

ThissentencepresupposesthatSusanexistsandthatshehasasister.

23Inanylanguage,therearesomeexpressionsorconstructionswhichcanactasthesourcesofpresuppositions.Thiskindofexpressionsorconstructionsiscalledpresupposition-triggers.

24presupposition-triggers(预设触发语)(>>for“presupposes”):A.Definitivedescriptions（限定性描述）(6)Johnsaw/didn’tseethemanwithtwoheads.>>Thereexistsamanwithtwoheads.B.Factiveverbs（叙述动词）(7)Johnrealized/didn’trealizethathewasindebt.>>Johnwasindebt.C.Changeofstateverbs（状态改变类动词）(8)Joanbegan/didn’tbegintobeatherhusband.>>Joanhadn’tbeenbeatingherhusband.25D.Iteratives（重复）(9)Theflyingsaucercame/didn’tcomeagain.>>Theflyingsaucercamebefore.E.Temporalclauses（时间小句）(10)WhileChomskywasrevolutionizinglinguistics,therestofsocialsciencewas/wasn’tasleep.>>Chomskywasrevolutionizinglinguistics.F.Cleftsentences（分裂句）(11)Itwas/wasn’tHenrythatkissedRosie.>>SomeonekissedRosie.G.Comparisonsandcontrasts（比较与对比）(12)Carolis/isn’tabetterlinguistthanBarbara.>>Barbaraisalinguist.266.3 MacropragmaticsMoreoftenthannot,wedon’tconfineourstudytoindividualutterances,butextendouranalysistolargerpiecesoflanguage,forthesimplereasonthatlanguageuseisanintricateprocess.

27Theresearchontheanalysesoflargerchunksoflanguage,suchasawholeconversation,anarticleorevenachapterofanoveloroneactofaplayintheuserinteractionconcerningthemechanismsbywhichspeakers/writersencodetheirmessageinskilfulwaysandhowhearers/readersarriveattheintendedmeaningsinspiteofthedifferencesbetweentheliteralmeaningandtheintendedmeaningiscalledmacropragmatics.

28Differenttheoriesinmacropragmatics:Speechacttheory（言语行为理论）TheCooperativePrinciple（合作原则）ThePolitenessPrinciple（礼貌原则）Philosophers,intheirsearchforanswerstotheirphilosophicalpuzzles,turnedtolanguagestudies.Theycameupwithseveralapproachestohowlanguageisusedandhowcertainproblemsseemtobeexplainedbylanguageinuse.Theyoftenrefertotheseapproachesasphilosophyoflanguagebutlinguistsprefertocallitpragmatics(macropragmatics).296.3.1SpeechacttheorySpeechacttheorywasproposedbyJ.L.AustinandhasbeendevelopedbyJ.R.Searle.Basically,theybelievethatlanguageisnotonlyusedtoinformortodescribethings,itisoftenusedto“dothings”,toperformacts.Speechacts:actionsperformedviautterances.(13)Youarefired.30J.L.AustinPerformativesandConstativesTrichotomyofSA（三分法）Illocutionaryact（言外行为）311）PerformativesandConstatives

（施为语：“做事”；陈述语：“陈说”）

Iannounceyouhusbandandwife.Ibetyoutendollarsitwillraintomorrow.Ideclarethemeetingopen.Ineedthesalt.Constatives:sentencesthatareusedtostateordescribethings.Performatives:sentencesthatareusedtodothings.Thiskindofsentencescannotbetrueorfalse.32Itisarguedthatevennon-performativesentencesareusedtoperformacts.(14)“It’ssuchafinedaytoday.”(suggestinganouting)Soitisclaimedthatallsentences,inadditiontowhatevertheymean,performspecificactionsor“dothings”throughspecificforces.332）ThreetypesofspeechactsAfterrejectingthedistinctionbetweenperformativesandconstatives,Austinputforwardhisnewmodel:aspeakerwhileproducinganutteranceisinmostcasesperformingthreeactssimultaneously.3435Canyoutellthedifferentspeechactsperformedintheutterances?（练习题）(15)Ibelieveheisinnocent.(16)Getoutofhere!(17)Nexttime,I’llarriveontime.(18)I’msorryforthetroubleIbroughttoyou.(19)Iannounceyouhusbandandwife.36Infact,wemightutterittomakeastatement,arequest,anexplanation,orforsomeothercommunicativepurposes.Thisisalsogenerallyknownastheillocutionaryforceoftheutterance.Buthowdopeopleknowwhichspeechactisintended?Apossibleansweristospecifyfelicityconditions—circumstancesunderwhichitwouldbeappropriatetointerpretsomethingasaparticulartypeofspeechact.Forexample,ifagenuineorderhasbeengiven,thehearermustbephysicallycapableofcarryingitout(“Getmeastar”isnot),andmustbeabletoidentifytheobjectinvolved.37

Theliteralmeaningistakencareofbysemanticsandtheeffectofanutteranceissubjecttomanyfactors,includingsocialpsychology,morethanlinguisticscancopewith.So,whatspeechacttheoryismostconcernedwithisillocutionaryact.Itattemptstoaccountforthewaysbywhichspeakerscanmeanmorethanwhattheysay.Itisalsodesignedtoshowcoherenceinseeminglyincoherentconversations.(20)a.Husband:That’sthephone.b.Wife:I’minthebathroom.(illocutionaryact)c.Husband:Okay.383）ClassificationofillocutionaryactsJ.R.Searle:suggestsfivebasiccategoriesofillocutionaryacts39404）IndirectspeechactsAdifferentapproachtodistinguishingtypesofspeechactscanbemadeonthebasisofthethreebasicsentencestypes：(21)a.declarative:Youwearaseatbelt.(statement)b.interrogative:Doyouwearaseatbelt?(question)c.imperative:Wearaseatbelt!(command/request)Wheneverthereisadirectrelationshipbetweenastructureandafunction,wehaveadirectspeechact.41Adeclarativeusedtomakeastatementisadirectspeechact,butadeclarativeusedtomakearequestisanindirectspeechact.Forexample:(22)It’scoldoutside.a.Iherebytellyouabouttheweather.(statement:directspeechact)b.Iherebyrequestofyouthatyouclosethedoor.(request/command:indirectspeechact)42(23)

Youdon’twanttheaddresseetostandinfrontoftheTV.Whatwillyousay?练习题a.Moveoutoftheway!b.DoyouhavetostandinfrontoftheTV?c.Ican’tseethescreen.d.It’sharmfultoyoureyes.

Requestsareoftenperformedindirectly.Whydopeopletendtouseindirectspeechactsindailycommunication?43Toensureasuccessfulcommunication,collaborationisanecessaryfactor.Inmuchoftheprecedingdiscussion,wehaveassumedthatspeakersandlistenersinvolvedinconversationsaregenerallycooperatingwitheachother.Forexample,inacceptingspeakers’presuppositions,listenersnormallyhavetoassumethataspeakerwhosays‘mycar’reallydoeshavethecarthatismentionedandisn’ttryingtomisleadthelistener.6.3.2Thecooperativeprinciple441）TheCooperativePrinciple(p.154)

H.P.Grice(1975)suggeststhatthereisasetofassumptionsguidingtheconductofconversation.TheCooperativePrinciple(CP).Thecooperativeprincipleisstatedinthefollowingway:Makeyourconversationalcontributionsuchasisrequired,atthestageatwhichitoccurs,bytheacceptedpurposeordirectionofthetalkexchangeinwhichyouareengaged.Simply,CPmeansweshouldsaywhatistrueinaclearandrelevantmanner.452）ThemaximsA.Themaximofquantity1.Makeyourcontributionasinformativeasisrequired(forthecurrentpurposesoftheexchange).2.Donnotmakeyourcontributionmoreinformativethanisrequired.B.ThemaximofqualityTrytomakeyourcontributiononethatistrue.1.Donotsaywhatyoubelievetobefalse.2.Donotsaythatforwhichyoulackadequateevidence.46C.ThemaximofrelationMakesurethatwhateveryousayisrelevanttotheconversationathand.D.ThemaximofmannerBeperspicuous.1.Avoidobscurityofexpression.2.Avoidambiguity.3.Bebrief(avoidunnecessaryprolixity).4.Beorderly.47Examples:(24)Husband:Wherearethecarkeys?Wife:They’reonthetableinthehall.Inthemiddleoftheirlunchhour,onewomanasksanotherhowshelikesthehamburgersheiseating,andreceivestheanswerin:(25)Ahamburgerisahamburger.(quantity)Doyouthinkthisutteranceiscooperative?Whatcanyouinferredfromthesentence?483）Conversationalimplicature会话涵义AccordingtoGrice,utteranceinterpretationisnotamatterofdecodingmessages,butratherinvolves(i)takingthemeaningofthesentencestogetherwithcontextualinformation,(ii)usinginferencerules,and(iii)workingoutwhatthespeakermeansonthebasisoftheassumptionthattheutteranceconformstothemaxims.ThemainadvantageofthisapproachfromGrice’spointofviewisthatitprovidesapragmaticexplanationforawiderangeofphenomena,especiallyforconversationalimplicatures—akindofextrameaningthatisnotliterallycontainedintheutterance.49However,inactualspeechcommunication,itisoftenthecasethatspeakerscannotordonotobservetheCPanditsmaxims.(26)Heisatiger.(27)Tomhaswoodenears.Metaphorsandironyarestandardexamplesofthefloutingofthemaximofquality(违反质准则).50Violationofthemaximofquantitybyprovidinglessormoreinformationthanisrequired(违反量准则):(28)Girlsaregirls.(tautology.)(29)I’mAlexfromLeeds,26,unmarried.In(28),thehearerwouldinferfromthespecificcontextthatthespeakerprobablymeanthatgirlsarecareful,thoughtful,andconsiderateorliketotalkaboutshoppingandfashion.Ifamanintroduceshimselftoagirlataparty,asin(29),hewouldmakethegirlsuspiciousofhismotive.51Themaximsofrelationandmannercanalsonotbeobserved(违反关系、方式准则):(30)A:I’moutofpetrol.B:Thereisgarageroundthecorner.(31)A:Shallwegetsomethingforthekids?B:Yes.ButIvetoI-C-E-C-R-E-A-M.[p157]526.3.3Thepolitenessprinciple(PP)(32)Youdon’twanttheaddresseetostandinfrontoftheTV.Whatwillyousay?（练习题）a.Moveoutoftheway!b.DoyouhavetostandinfrontoftheTV?c.Ican’tseethescreen.d.It’sharmfultoyoureyes.

Requestsareoftenperformedindirectly.Whydopeopletendtouseindirectspeechactsindailycommunication?合作原则只说明了交际者有意违反合作原则及其准则可以获得特殊的会话涵义。但是，却并未解释交际双方为什么要这样说话。53Inmostcases,theindirectnessismotivatedbyconsiderationsofpoliteness.Politenessisusuallyregardedbymostpragmatistsasameansorstrategywhichisusedbyaspeakertoachievevariouspurposes,suchassavingface,establishingandmaintainingharmonioussocialrelationsinconversation.Leech(1983:80)looksonpolitenessascrucialinaccountingfor“whypeopleareoftensoindirectinconveyingwhattheymean”.HethusthePolitenessPrinciple:54FollowingGrice’spresentationoftheCP,LeechputsforwardsixmaximsofthePolitenessPrinciple:Minimize(otherthingsbeingequal)theexpressionofimpolitebeliefsandmaximize(otherthingsbeingequal)theexpressionofpolitebeliefs.55MaximofTact得体/策略准则(indirectivesandcommissives)(i)Minimizecosttoother使他人受损最下(ii)Maximizebenefittoother使他人受惠最大(33)Travelandexpenseswillbepaidforand,ifyouwish,youcouldalsogiveaplenarypaper.（会议邀请函）MaximofGenerosity慷慨准则(indirectivesandcommissives)(i)Minimizebenefittoself(ii)Maximizecosttoself(34).Theidealthingwouldbetodoatelnetchat,ifitweretobepossible.Butsinceyouareathome.That’sapromise.(为对方代劳工作)56MaximofApprobation赞扬准则(inexpressivesandassertives)(i)Minimizedispraiseofother(ii)Maximizepraiseofother(35)Goodtohearfromyou.I’vejusthadaquicklookatyourwebpages.Looksgood!!MaximofModesty谦虚准则

(inexpressivesandassertives)(i)Minimizepraiseofself(ii)MaximizedispraiseofselfThemaximofmodestyaccountsforthebenignnatureofutteranceslike(36)andtheoffensivenatureof(37).(36)Howstupidofme!(37)Howcleverofme!57

MaximofAgreement一致准则(inassertives)(i)Minimizedisagreementbetweenselfandother(ii)MaximizeagreementbetweenselfandotherRegulatedbythemaximofagreement,peopletendtoexaggeratetheircommongroundfirst,evenwhenmuchdifferenceistofollow:(38)A:Thebookisverywellwritten.B:Yes,wellwrittenasawhole,buttherearesomeratherboringpatches,don’tyouthink?58Ifexpressingdisagreementisinevitable,thenspeakersattempttosoftenitinvariousways,byexpressingregretatthedisagreement.e.g.(39)I’msorry,butIcan’t