英语语言学知识4

Chapter1Introduction

语言学的定义：

Linguisticsisgenerallydefinedasthescientificstudyoflanguage.

问题:Howdoyouinterpretthefollowingdefinitionoflinguistics:Linguisticsis

thescientificstudyoflanguage?

-Itisascientificstudybecauseitisbasedonthesystematicinvestigationof

linguisticdata,conductedwithreferencetosomegeneraltheoryoflanguagestructure.

Whatthelinguisthastodo“first,then,but”：

@toobserveandcollectlanguagefactsandgeneralizationsaremadeaboutthem.

②toformulatesomehypothesesaboutthelanguagestructure.

@tocheckthehypothesesthusformedrepeatedlyagainsttheobservedfactstofully

provetheirvalidity.

Th.stud.o.languag.a..whoLi.ofte.calle.genera.linguistics.（普通语言学）

问题：Whatarcthemajorbranchesoflinguistics?Whatdocseachofthemstudy?

fphonetics（语音学）->thestudyofsounds

phonology（音位学）fstudyhowsoundsareputtogetherandusedtoconvey

meaning

morphology（形态学）一sludythewayinwhichsymbolsormorphemesare

arrangedandcombinedtoformwords.

syntax（句法学）—ihestudyofrulesofformingsentences

-"semantics（语义学）-*thestudyofmeaning

-*pragmatics（语用学）-*thecontextoflanguageuse

SociolinguisticsC社会语言学）：Thestudiesofallthesesocialaspectsoflanguageand

itsrelationwithsocietyformthecoreofthebranch.

Psycholinguistics（语言心理学）:Relatethestudyoflanguagetopsychology

Applie.linguistics（应用语言学）：

L.narro.scns.i.rcfcr.t.th.applicatio.o.linguisti.thcoric.an.principlc.tJanguag.tcaching.es

peciall.th.teachin.o.foreig.an.secon.languages.

Someimportantdistinctionsinlinguistics:

©prescriptive（规定性）/descriptive（描写性）

©synchronic（共时）/diachronic（历时）

③speech（口语）/writing（书面语）

④langue（语言）/parole（言语）（th.Swis.linguis.F.d.Saussure-------

Cours.i.Genera.Linguistics）

⑤competence（语言能力）/performance（语言应用）（th.America.linguis.N.Chomsky）

©traditionalgrammar（传统语法）/modernlinguistics（现代语言学）

问题:inwhatbasicwaysdoesmodernlinguisticsdifferfromtraditional

grammar?

©linguisticsisdescriptivewhiletraditionalgrammarisprescriptive,

©modernlinguisticsregardsthespokenlanguageasprimary,notthewritten,

©modernlinguisticsdoesnotforcelanguagesintoaLatin-basedframework.

问题：Ismodernlinguisticsmainlysynchronicordiachronic?Why?

Lmoder.linguistics..synchroni.（不考虑历史演进的.限于一时

的approac.seem.t.enjo.priorit.ove.diachroni.（探求现象变化的.历时的.one.

Becaus.i.i.believe.tha.unles.th.variou.state.o.Janguag.i.differen.historica.period.ar.suc

cessfulI.studied.i.woul.b.difficuLt.describ.th.change.tha.hav.take.plac.i.it.historicadev

elopmcnt.

Synchronicdescriptionsareoftenthoughtofasbeingdescriptionsoflanguageinits

currentexistence,andmostlinguisticstudiesareofthistype.

问题：Forwhatreasonsdoesmodernlinguisticsgiveprioritytospeechrather

thantowriting?

Fro.th.poin.o.vic.o.linguisti.cvolution.spccc.i.prio.t.writing.Th.writin.systc.o.an.langua

g.i.alway.

invented.b.it.user.t.recor.speec.whe.th.nee.arises.Eve.i.today'.worl.ther.ar.stil.man.

language.tha.ca.onl.b.spDke.bu.no.written.Tmunication.speec.play..gr

eate.rol.tha.rmatio.conveyed.

Spoke.languag.reveaLmor.tru.feature.o.huma.speec.whiLwritte.languag.i.onl.lh.

“revised.rccor.o.spccch.An.linguists.dat.fb.invcstigatio.an.analysi.ar.mostl.draw.fro.e

veryda.speech.whic.the.regarde.a.authentic.

语言的定义：

Languageisasystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsusedforhumancommunication.

Designfeaturesoflanguage（7个识别特征）

©arbitrariness任意性（atthesyntacticlevel）

②productivity能产性，创造性

Secondaryunits（底层结构sounds）

Primaryunits（上层结构unitsofmeaning）

©displacement不<受时空限制性（handlegeneralizationandabstraction）

©culturaltransmission文化传递性

©interchangeability互换性

⑦convenlion约定性

Functionsoflanguage:

三大主要功能：

Thedescriptivefunction

Theexpressivefunction

Thesocialfunction

RomanJacobson（6种首要因素，结构主义语言学家）

©speakeraddresser-*emotive感情功能

②addressecfconalive意动功能

③context—referential所指功能

©messagepoetic诗学功能

©contact-*phaticcommunion交感功能

⑥code-*metalinguistic元语言功能

Otherfunctions:

①phaticfunction问候功能

②informativ.f.信息功能

③interrogativ.f.询问功能

④expressiv.f.表达功能

⑤evocativ.f.感染功能

⑥direcliv.f.指令功能

⑦performativ.f.行使（权力）功能

M.A.K.Halliday

©ideational

©interpersonal（indicale/establish/maintain/socialrelationships）

©textual

问题：

HowisSaussure'sdistinctionbetweenlangueandparolesimilartoChomsky's

distinctionbetweencompetenceandperformance?

Th.distinctio.betwee.langu.an.paroLwa.mad.b.Saussure.langu.i.abstract.1.i.no.th.Iangu

ag.peopLactualLuse.Parol.i.concrete.i.refer.t.th.naturan.occurrin.languag.events.Langu

.i.relativel.stable.i.doe.no.chang.frequently.whil.paroLvarie.fro.peopLt.people.an.fro.si

tualio.t.situation.

Tposc.b.th.Amcrica.linguist.Chcmsk

petenc.i..dea.user'.knowledg.o.th.rule.o.hi.language.an.th.performanc.i.th.actu

munication.Impcrfec.pcrformanc.i.cause.b.s

ocia.an.psychologica.factors.

Saussur.make.lhi.distinclio.i.orde.t.singLou.on.aspec.o.languag.fo.seriou.study.Lhi.opi

nion.parol.i.simpL.mas.o.linguisti.facts.to.varie.confusin.fb.systemati.investigation.an.

emin.t

h.actua.us.o.languag.an.mak.the.th.subject.o.stud.o.linguistics.

Simila.t.Saussure.Chomsk.think.wha.linguist.shoul.slud.i.th.idea.speaker'.competen

ce.no.hi.performance.whic.i.to.haphazar.t.b.studied.

问题:

Wha.ar.th.mai.feature.o.huma.languag.tha.hav.bee.specifie.b.C.Hocket.t.sho.tha.i.i.ess

entiall.differen.fro.anima.coinmunicatio.system?

©arbitrariness任意性（atthesyntacticlevel）

②productivity能产性，创造性

Secondaryunits（底层结构sounds）

Primaryunits（上层结木勾unitsofmeaning）

©displacement不<受时空限制性（handlegeneralizationandabstraction）

⑤culturaltransmission文化传递性

©interchangeabi1ity互换性

⑦convention约定性

Chapter2Phonology

Phonetics:（语音学）

®thestudyofthephonicmediumoflanguage

②lookatspeechsoundsfrom3distinctbutrelatedpointsofview.

Istudythesoundsfromthespeaker'spointofview-*articulatoryphonetics（发

音语音学）

IIlookatthesoundsfromthehearer'spointofview-*auditoryphonetics（听觉语

音学）

Illstudythewaysoundstravelbylookingatthesoundwaves-*acousticphonetics

（声学语音学）

©studyhowsoundsareproduced,transmittedandperceived.

Organsofspeech:

1-threeimportantareas

①Thepharyngealcavity-*thethroat

②theoralcavity—hemouth

③thenasalcavity-*thenose

2.Thepharyngealcavity-*windpipe/glottis/larynx/vocalcords

3.theoralcavity-*tongue/uvula/softpalatc（vclum）/hardpalate/tccthridgc（alvcolus）

/teeth/lips

InternationalPhoneticAlphabet（IPA）

①diacritics附加符号

②broadtranscription（宽式标音）—thetranscriptionwithletter-symbolsonly

©narrowtranscription（严式标音）—thetranscriptionwithletter-symbolstogether

withthediacritics

ClassificationofEnglishspeechsounds

①twobroadcategoriesofspeechsoundsinEnglish:Vbwels/consonants

②twowaystoclassifytheEnglishconsonants:Intermsofmannerofarticulation

Intermsofplaceofarticulation

③Intermsofmannerofarticulation:

Stops/fricatives/affricates/liquids/nasals/glides

④Intermsofplaceofarticulation:

Bilabial/labiodcntal/dcntal/alvcolar/palatal/vclar/glottal

⑤

bilabialLabio-dentaldentalalveolarpalatalvelarglottal

stopsVLPtk

VDbdg

fricativesVLf0srh

VDVdz3

affricatesVL(tl)tj

VD(d3)d3

nasalsVDmnD

liquidsVD1/r

glidesVDwj

ClassificationofEnglishvowels

1.criteria:(monophthongs)单元音

Thepositionofthetongueinthemouth:front/central/back

Theopennessofthemouth:closevowels/semi-closevowels/semi-open

vowels/openvowels

Theshapeofthelips:unrounded/rounded

Thelengthofthevowels:tense/lax

frontcentralback

close\i:u:

u

e

Semi-close\9：

\3o:

Semi-open

openA3

a

\a:

2.diphthongs双元音

/ei/

/ai/

/au/

au

"3/

/e3/

/ua/

Phonology音韵学，语音体系

Differenceofphonologyandphonetics:

①Phoneticsisinterestedinallthespeechsoundsusedinallhumanlanguages.

②Phonologyaimstodiscoverhowspeechsoundsinalanguageformpatternsand

howthesesoundsareusedtoconveymeaninginlinguisticcommunication.

Phone（音素）:Aphoneisaphoneticunitorsegment.

Phoneme（音

位）.I.i..phonologica.unit.i.i..uni.tha.i.o.distinctiv.value.I.i.a.abstrac.unit.I.i.no.an

.particula.sound.bu.rathe.i.i.represente.o.realize.b..certai.phon.i..certai.phoneti.c

ontext.

Allophone（音位变体）:Thedifferentphoneswhichcanrepresentaphonemein

differentphoneticenvironmentsarecalledthealloDhonesofthatphoneme.

Phonemiccontrast（音位对立）

Complementarydistribution（音位变体的互补分布）

Minimalpairs（最小对立体）：含音位的单词的全部音标

Minimalset（最〃、对立集）:isusedtofindtheimportantsoundsinlanguage.

PhonologicalAnalysis（音位分析）

Principle:certainsoundscausechangesinthemeaningofawordorphase,whereas

othersoundsdonot.

Phoneticallysimilarsounds:描述音位关系

Freevariants:音位的自由变体

Thedifferenceofpronouncingasoundcausedbydialect,habit,individualdifference

orregionaldifferencesinsteadofbyanydistributionrule.

Somerulesinphonology

①sequentialrules:序曲规则

Ifawordbeginswitha/1/ora/r/,then（henextsoundmustbeavowel.

Ifthreeconsonantsshouldclustertogetheratthebeginningofaword,thecombinationshould

obeythefollowingthreeniles:

Thefirstphonememustbe/s/

Thesecondphonememustbe/p//t//k/

Thethirdphonememustbe/1//r//w/

②assimilationrule:同化规则

③deletionrule:省略规则

Suprasegmentalfeatures超音段特征W超音段（比音位更大的语言单位）

①stress（单词，句子层面）:thelocationofstressinEnglishdistinguishes

meaning.

Syllabic音节：Asyllabicnucleus（oftenavowel）withoptionalinitialandfinal

margins（oftenconsonants）

单音节词

多音节词

英语单词都rr重读

音位学中，单词由音节构成，音节由音位构成。

句子里读重音的词：

Nouns/mainverbs/adjectives/advcrbs/numcrals/dcmonstrativepronouns

②tone（词汇层面）

Englishisnotatonelanguage

Chineseisatypicaltonelanguage:

Level/thesecondrise/thethirdfall-rise/thefourthfall

©intonation（句子层面）

Englishhasfourbasictypesofintonation:

Thefallingtone/therisingtone/thefall-risetone/therise-falllone

问题：

Whatarethetwomajormediaofcommunication?Ofthetwo,whichoneisprimary

andwhy?

Speechandwriting

Speech

Becaus.fro.th.poin.o.vie.o.linguisti.evolution.speec.i.prio.t.writing.Th.writin.syste.o.an

.languag.i.alway.

uinvented.b.it.user.t.recor.speec.whe.th.nee.arises.Eve.i.today'.worl.ther.ar.stil.man.

language.tha.ca.onl.b.spoke.bu.no.written.Tmunication.speec.play..gr

eate.rol.tha.rmatio.conveyed.

Spoke.languag.reveal.mor.tru.feature.o.huma.speec.whiLwritte.languag.i.onl.th.

“revised.recor.o.spccch.An.linguists.dat.fb.investigatio.an.analysi.ar.mostl.draw.fro.e

veryda.speech.whic.the.regarde.a.authentic.

问题：

Whatisvoicingandhowisitcaused?

Vibrationofthevocalcordsresultsinaqualityofspeechsoundscalled“voicing”,

whichisafeatureofallvowelsandsomeconsonantsinEnglish.

Chapter3Morphology词法形态学

1定义和知识点：

®thepartofthegrammarthatisconcernedwithwordformationandwordstructure

②thebranchoflinguisticsthatstudiestheinternalstructureofwords,andtherulesby

whichwordsareformed.

③itisessentiallysynchronic,primarilyconcernedwiththeformsofwordsthrough

theuseofmorphemeconstruct.

④iloverlapswiththeothersub-branchesasawordisasoundunitthathasmeaning

andsyntacticfunction.

⑤fourfacets:

Sounds（phonology）

Constructions（syntax）

Meanings（semantics）

Formsofwords

2词性分类

①openclasswords:名、动、形、副arethecontentwordsofalanguage

②closedclasswords:连、介、冠、代aresmallandstablesincefewnewwordsare

added

3词素有关

❶Morpheme:词素

构成单词的最小意义单位，包括声音和意义,abstractunits（任意性）

❷Morph:形素

thesoundofamorpheme声音

❸Allomorphs:语素变体

Thevariantformsofamorpheme

4分类morphemes

①Freemorpheme（自由词素）：Amorphemewhichcanbeawordbyitself

②boundmorpheme（粘着词素）：Amorphemethatmustbeattachedtoanother

one

（3）lexicalmorphemes/derivationalmorphemes（派生词素，包括前后缀）：Theyarc

usedtoderivenewwords,alsoknownasderivationalmorphemes

④inflectionalmorphemes（屈折词素）：词类不发生变化

5单词定义:Word

Awordisaunitofexpressionwhichisintuitivelyrecognizedbynativespeakersin

bothspokenandwrittenlanguage.

.bination.o.word.ac

cordin.t.syntacti.rules.

.wor.i.JexemeCii'Jft）..lexcm.i..wor.i.a.abstrac.sense.

Awordcanbedefinedasagrammaticalunit.

6单词结构：Structure

Rponen.o.it.meaning.R

oot.belon.t.lexica.category.

Stem:itistheformofthewordtowhichbothinflectionalandderivational

morphemescanbeadded.

Base:词基

Affixes.the.ar.form.tha.ar.attache.t.word.o.wor.element.t.modif.meanin.o.functio

n.Al.o.the.ar.boun.morpheme.an.don'.belon.t.Jexica.category.

7单词合成:Wordformation

©morphologicalrules-*productivemorphologicalrules

②derivation

③compounds几点注意：

Wpoun.wil.b.Iik.this.n..n..adj..ad

W.differen.categories.n..adj..v..n.（不总是这样）

Themeaningofacompoundisnotalwaysthesumofthemeaningsofitsparts.

8单词合成过程：

©compounding

©affixationorderivation

✓Blends混合词

Abbreviation缩略语

③shortening^—acronyms按音节拼读首字母的单词

Initials按字母拼读的单词

Clippings缩写词

©backformation逆构词法

9要点

Grammaticalmorphemesaregrammaticalinnature,functioningasgrammatical

markersorshowsyntacticrelations.

Theyconsistofbothinflectionalmorphemesandsomefreeoneslikein,and,do,they,

while,where,butandthat,whicharetraditionallyknownasfunctionalwords.

Chapter4Syntax句法

1定义

Itisabranchoflinguisticsthatstudiestherulesthatgoverntheformationof

sentences.

2四大派别

①traditionalsyntax传统学派

②structuralsyntax结构主义学派（索绪尔）

③transformationalsyntax生成学派（乔姆斯基）（本书重点学习）

©functionalsyntax而能学派（哈里德）

3范畴Categories

/Noun(N)

Verb(V)

VsAdjective(A)

'Preposition(P)

/Determiner(Det)限定词/成分

/Degreewords(Deg)程度词

Qualifier(Qual)修饰语

Auxiliary(Aux)助词

'Conjunction(Con)连词

Syntacticcategories句法范畴的定义：

①Thefactthatwordsinallhumanlanguagescanbegroupedtogetherintoa

relativelysmallnumberofclasses.

②注：Theword-levelcategoriesarethemostcentralcategoriestothesyntactic

study.

Majorlexicalcategories(主要词汇范畴)playaveryimportantroleinsentence

formationandtheyareoftenassumedtobetheheadsaroundwhichphrasesarebuilt.

Minorlexicalcategories(次要词汇范畴)

/Meaning意义

Threecriteriatodetermineaword'scaitegory(一inflection屈折变化

'Distribution分布

?Itismisleadingtoassumethataword'scategorycanbetoldstraightforwardfrom

itsmeaning:

①nounsdonotconcretelyrevealtheirentities.

②somewordstendtobeverbsbuttheycanalsobeusedasnouns.

©word.wit.th.sam.o.simila.meaning.sometime.belon.t.differen.wor.categories.

Phrasesaresyntacticunitsthatarebuiltaroundacertainwordcategory.

I

Thephraseisbuiltaroundthewordcategory.

Thewordcategorydeterminesthecategoryofphrase.

4要点

生成学派认为句子由短语构成。

短语一单词一词素一音节一

/短语层面

任何短语都有2个层面(

单词层面

5themostcommonlyrecognizedanddiscussedphrasalcategories:

NP:nounphrase

VP:verbphrase

AP:adjectivephrase

PP:prepositionalphrase

6theelementsofphrasesthatareformedofmorethanoneword:

@head/termedhead中心语/中心成分：Thewordaroundwhichaphraseisformed

②specifiers标志语/标志成分：Thewordsontheleftsideoftheheads

©complements补语/补足语/补足成分:Thewordsontherightsideoftheheads

7phrasestructurerule短语结构规则

定义：Aspecialtypeofgrammaticalmechanismthatregulatesthearrangementof

elementsthatmakesupaphrase.

ThephrasestructureruleforNP,VP,AP,PP

NP-(Del)N(PP)...

VP-*(Qual)V(NP)...

AP-(Deg)A(PP)...

PP-*(Deg)P(NP)...

XPrule

公式一：XPf(specifier)X(complement，

X9Theory(X标杆理论)

①X，:Theintermediatelevelformedbytheheadandthecomplementbetween

wordlevelandphraselevel.

②X'Theory:(specifier)X9(word)

X'=X(complement)

Coordinationrule(并列规则)

Coordinatestructures(并列结构)

Coordination(并列，并列关系)

Fourimportantpropertiesofcoordination:

①thereisnolimitonthenumberofcoordinatedcategoriesthatcanappearpriorto

theconjunction.

②acategoryatanylevel(aheadoranentireXP)canbecoordinated.

©coordinatedcategoriesmustbeofthesametype.

@thecategorytypeofthecoordinatephraseisidenticaltothecategorytypeofthe

elementsbeingconjoined.

公式二:X-X*ConX(其中"”代表无限的意思)

8Phraseelements

Specifiershavebothspecialsemanticandsyntacticroles.

©semantically,theyhelpmakemoreprecisethemeaningofthehead.

©syntactically,theytypicallymarkaphraseboundary.

InEnglishspecifiersoccurattheleftboundaryoftheirrespectivephrases.

Complementsarethemselvesphraseandprovideinformationaboutentitiesand

locationswhoseexistenceisimpliedbythemeaningofthehead.

ComplementsareattachedtotherightoftheheadinEnglish.

Subcategorization(次范畴化)：中心成分决定补充成分这种现象。

中心成分决定补充成分时，决定着是否需要补充成分，需要什么样的补充成分,

以及补充成分的位置问题。

TheXPRule(revised)

公式三：XP—(specifier)X(complement*)

Complementizers(Cs):补语化成分

Wordswhichintroducethesentencecomplement

Complementclause:补语从句

Thesentenceintroducedbythecomplementizer

Complementphrase(CP):补语短语

Matrixclause主句

Modifiers修饰成分，修饰语

TheExpandedXPrule:

|公式四：XP-*(Spec)(Mod)X(Complement*)(ModR

9sentences

TheSrule:S-NPVP

/4种

短语<

种（句子为屈折短语）

10transformations（转换规则）

/Yes-noquestion

Syntacticmovement^--wh-question

、Passivevoice

Transformation/Inversion（倒置）定

5t..specia.typ.o.rul.tha.ca.mov.a.elemen.fro.on.positio.t.another.

Inversion（倒置）：

MoveInfltotheleftofthesubjectNP|

AllSsoccurwithinlargerCPs,whethertheyareembeddedornot.

Inversion（revised）:

MoveInfltoC|

Lplementizer.an.a

uxiliaric.ar.mutuall.cxclusive.

Trace:用“e”表示

Headmovement中心语移位：Themovementofawordfromtheheadpositionin

onephraseintotheheadpositioninanother

Inversion->一般疑问句+显性助词

Doinsertion:

InsertinterrogativedointoanemptyInflposition

11Twolevelsofsyntacticstructure

Deepstructure（D-structure）:

ThestructureformedbytheXPruleinaccordancewiththehead'ssubcategorization

properties

Surfacestructure（S-structure）:

Thestructurecorrespondstothefinalsyntacticformofthesentencewhichresults

fromappropriatetansfonnations

★Theorganizationofthesyntacticcomponentofthegrammar

TheXPRule

_L

Dee—structure(subcategorizationrestrictschoiceofcomclements)

_L

Transformations

_L

Surfacestructure

12WhMovement:

Movethewhphrasetothebeginningofthesentence

WhMovement(revised):

MoveawhphrasetothespecifierpositionunderCP

13Moveaandconstraintsontransformations

.ther.i..genera,rul.fo.al.th.movemen.rules.Thi.genera,rul.i.referre.

t.a.Movea,wher.

“alpha,i..cove.ter.fo.an.elemen.tha.ca.b.move.fro.on.plac.t.anoth

er.

❷onlycertaincategoriesaretargetedbymovementrules,andtherearelimitson

howfarelementscanbemoved.

①inversioncanmoveanauxiliaryfromtheInfltothenearestCposition.

②noelementmayberemovedfromacoordinatestructure.

Chapter5Semantics语义学

1语义学定义：

Semanticscanbesimplydefinedasthestudyofmeaning.

2Thenamingtheory(ancientGreekscholarPlato)

A-B

Thewordsusedinalanguagearesimplylabelsoftheobjectstheystandfor.

Limitations:

Thistheoryseemsapplicabletonounsonly.

Abstractnotionscannotbedefinedbythistheory.

3Theconceptualistview(概念论)

Thereisnodirectlinkbetweenalinguisticformandwhatitrefersto.

Semantictriangle/triangleofsignificance(OgdenandRichards)1923年提出

4colitextualis.语境论(J.R.Firth-----Britis.linguist)

Malinowski(Polishanthropologist)

Wittgenstein(Germanphilosopher)

Thecontextualistviewofmeaningisbasedonthepresumptionthatonecanderive

meaningfromorreducemeaningtoobservablecontexts.

Twokindsofcontext:

Thesituationalcontext

Thelinguisticconlext/co-texl

Themaincomponentsofaparticularspatiotemporalsituation:

Theplace

Thetime

Thespeaker

Thehearer

Theactions

Thevariousobjectsandevents

Thelinguisticcontextisconcernedwiththeprobabilityofaword'sco-occurrenceor

collocationwithanotherword,whichformspartofthe“meaning”oftheword,and

alsowiththepartoftextthatprecedesandfollowsaparticularutterance.

5Behaviorism行为主义论(AmericanBloomfield)

Thistheoryislinkedwithpsychologicalinterest.

刺激反应理论：

JillJack

SR

6lexicalmeaning

Senseandreference

Sense定义：

I.i.concerne.wit.th.inheren.meanin.o.Jinguisti.form.th.collectio.o.aLit.features.!.i.abstr

ac.an.de-contextualized.(Dereste.in)

每个单词都有它的意义(sense)

Reference定义：

Itmeanswhatalinguisticformreferstointhereal,physicalworld;itdealswiththe

relationshipbetweenthelinguisticelementandthenon-linguisticworldof

experience.

不是所有单词都有语义(reference)

Majorsenserelations:

❶synonymy同义关系synonyms

©dialectalsynonyms方言同义词(BritishEnglishandAmericanEnglish)

Girl------lass/lassie(Scottishdialect)

Liquor-------whiskey(Irishdialect)

BA

Autumnfall

Liftelevator

Luggagebaggage

Lorrytruck

Petrolgasoline

Flatapartment

Windscreenwindshield

Torchflashlight

©stylisticsynonyms

Wordshavingthesamemeaningmaydifferinstyle,ordegreeofformality

E.g.ol.nian/daddy/dad/father/maLparcnt

Start/begin/commence

Kid/child/offspring

Kickthebucket/popoff7die/passaway/decease

©synonymsthatdifferintheiremotiveorevaluationmeaning

Collaborator/accomplice

©collocationalsynonyms短语同义词

Accuse...o!7charge...with/rebuke...for

Rottentomatoes/addledeggs/rancidbacon/sourmilk

©semanticallydifferentsynonyms语义上不同的同义词

Amaze/astound

Drift/float

❷polysemy一词多义

©homonymy同音异义

①identicalinsound（homophones）:Rain/reignnight/knightpiece/peaceieak/ieek

©identicalinspelling（homographs）:Bow/bowtear/tearlead/lead

©identicalinbothsoundandspelling（completehomonyms）:Fast/fastscale/scale

❹hyponymy下义关系

®Itreferstothesenserelationbetweenamoregeneral,moreinclusivewordanda

morespecificword.

②superordinale上坐标词

③hyponyms下义词

④co-hyponyms共同下义词

E.g.Flowcr.rose/tulip/carnation/lily/mornin.glon

Animal:dog/cat/tiger/Iion/wolf7elephant/fox/bear

Furniture:bed/table/desk/dresser/wardrobe/settee

❺anlonymy反义关系

①gradableantonyms等级反义词

©complementaryantonyms互补反义词（不能共存，非此即彼）

③relationalopposites反向反义关系（相反的两个极端但可共存）

7senserelationsbetweensentences

①XissynonymouswithY.（X真,Y真；X假,Y假）

②XisinconsistentwithY.（X真,Y假;X假,Y真）

③XentailsY.（X真,丫一定真;X假,Y可真可假）

@XpresupposesY.（X真,Y一定真；X假,Y仍为真）

⑤.1.contradiction.（X永远假）

⑥Xissemanticallyanomalous.语义破格句

8analysisofmeaning

Ocomponentialanalysis--awaytoanalyzelexicalmeaning（成分分析）

Semanticfeatures语义特征：

Theword“man”comprisesthefeaturesof+HUMAN,+ADULT,+ANIMATE,+MALE

©predicationanalysis----awaytoanalyzesentencemeaning（述谓结构分析）

Themeaningofasentenceisnottobeworkedoutbyaddingupthemeaningsofall

itsconstituentwords.

Therearetwoaspectstosentencemeaning

Grammaticalmeaning:grammaticalwell-formedness

Thegrammaticalityofasentenceisgovernedbythegrammaticalrulesofthe

language.

Semanticmeaning:

Whetherasentenceissemanticallymeaningfulisgovernedbyrulescalledselectional

restrictions(选择限制).constraintsonwhatlexicalitemscangowithwhatothers.)

注意同生成学派次范畴化进行对比

Predicationanalysis:

propose.b.th.Britis.linguis.G.Leech.

Predication:itistheabstractionofthemeaningofasentence.

Apredicationconsistsofargument(s)(变元)andpredicate(谓词)

••…E.g.TOM(SMOKE)

KID,APPLE(LIKE)

(BEHOT)

(SNOW)

Argument(s)(变元淀义：

Itisalogicalparticipantinapredication,largelyidenticalwithanominalelementina

sentence.

Predicate(谓词)定义：

Itissomethingsaidaboutanargumentoritstalesthelogicalrelationlinkingthe

argumentsinasentence.

Classificationofthepredicationaccordingtothenumberofarguments

containedinapredication:

©two-placepredication

②one-placepredicati