跨文化交际案例阅读

跨文化交际阅读与案例评析CommunicationAcrossCultures

Unit1Bynaturepeoplearenearlyalike;bypracticetheygettobewideapart.--Confucius

AWarm-upStory

Onceuponatimeamarmosetdecidedtoleavetheforestandexplorethegreatworld.…UnderstandingTipsWhatisculture?Objectives:

Tounderstandthedefinitionof:CultureCommunicationInterculturalcommunicationI.WhatisCulture?1.Language(carrierofculture)

2.Sharedvaluesnwhatisworthdyingfor

n

whatisworthprotecting

n

whatfrightenspeople

n

whatarepropersubjectsforstudyandforridicule

n

whattypesofeventscreategroupsolidarity.I.WhatisCulture?3.Beliefs

I.WhatisCulture?——subjectiveprobabilitiessuchasreligion,concept…,subjecttoculturalinterpretation.

4.SocialOrganization

I.WhatisCulture?

5.Whatwedo--n

Howwelive

n

Whatweeat

nWhatweplayI.WhatisCulture?6.WhatwecreateArt(music,painting,etc.)ArchitectureTools,machinesI.WhatisCulture?FiveDimensionsofCultureProductsPracticesCommunitiesPersons

PerspectivesCulture

Cultureinvolvestangibleformsorstructures(products)thatindividualmembersoftheculture(persons)useinvariousinteractions(practices)inspecificsocialcircumstancesandgroups(communities)inwaysthatreflecttheirvalues,attitudesandbeliefs(perspectives).

SoWhatisCulture?CharacteristicsofcultureCultureIsLearnedCultureIsaSetofSharedInterpretationsCultureInvolvesBeliefs,Values,andNormsCultureAffectsBehaviorsCultureInvolvesLargeGroupsofPeopleHence,culturecanbedefinedas——Culturecanbeseenassharedknowledge,whatpeopleneedtoknowinordertoactappropriatelyinagivenculture.

Whatiscommunication?II.DefiningCommunication

1.Relationshipbetweencommunicationandculture：Cultureiscommunicationandcommunicationisculture.--EdwardT.Hall2.FormsofHumanCommunicationMediatedCommunication(devices,examples)OralCommunication(speech,nonverbalmessages)

II.DefiningCommunication

3.Definitionoforalcommunication:Theprocessbywhichpersonsshareinformation,meanings,andfeelingsthroughtheexchangeofverbalandnonverbalmessages.II.DefiningCommunication

4.Classesofmessages:IntentionalmessagesUnintentionalmessages(whichcanhaveanadverseimpactoninterculturalcommunication)II.DefiningCommunication

5.Characteristicsofcommunicationprocess:II.DefiningCommunication

dynamicsystematicadaptivecontinuoustransactionalirreversible.6.Elementsofcommunicationprocess:Communicators:speaker/listenerMessagesChannelFeedbackNoiseSpeakingsituationII.DefiningCommunication

AModelofInterpersonalCommunicationWhatisinterculturalcommunication?

Whyisinterculturalcommunicationnecessary?III.interculturalcommunicationDetailsDetailsCase1Case2Case3Case4Case5Case6CaseStudy

GroupWork

Tellyourgroupmemberswhetheryouwilltestifythatyourfriendwasdriving20milesanhourornot.Youwereridinginacardrivenbyaclosefriendwhenhehitapedestrian.Therewerenootherwitnessesandthepedestrianwasbruisedbutnotbadlyhurt.Thespeedlimitinthispartoftownis20milesperhour,butyounoticedthatyourfriendwasdriving35.Hislawyertoldyouifyouwouldtestifyunderoaththatyourfriendwasdriving20,hewouldsuffernoseriousconsequences.culturecanbeviewedasaniceberg.

CulturalPuzzleTHEENDGenerallyspeaking,interculturalcommunicationreferstocommunicationbetweenpeoplewhoseculturalbackgroundsaredistinctenoughtoaltertheircommunication.III.interculturalcommunicationBackWhyDoWeStudyInterculturalCommunication?BackTheEmbarrassmentCausedby“NoEtiquette”Back跨文化交际阅读与案例评析CulturalDiversity

Unit2Ittakesallsortstomakeaworld.

EnglishproverbAWarm-upStoryIfinthedininghall,aflywasseeninaglassofbeer,…UnderstandingTipssocialinteractionsmayvarygreatlyowingtodifferentculturalbackgrounds.Objectives:

Tounderstand:theimportanceofrecognitionofculturaldifference;Thegreatinfluenceofculturaldifferenceonbehavioralpatternintheeastandthewest.Aren’ttheinterestingsimilaritiesbetweenJapaneseandWesternwaysbeginningtooutweighthedifferences?CultrualDifference

Japanesesvs.AmericansExamples：KidsinkindergartensTherolesoftheteachersThedepictionofsocialrelationshipsCultrualDifference

Japanesesvs.AmericansIndividualorGroup:"I"or"We"QuestionsfordiscussionWhichteachingmethoddoyouprefer,AmericanorJapanese?Whateffectwouldthesedifferentteachingmethodshaveonthechildrenintheirfuturedevelopment?IdentifyingDifferenceMostofthetime,thedifferentwaysthatarethecustomsofdifferentculturesareneitherrightnorwrong.Itissimplythatdifferentpeopledothesamethingsindifferentmanners.CaseStudy

Case1Case2Case3Case4Case5Case6CulturalDifferencesGroupWork

ListtheitemsthatmakeitnotaperfectfirstmeetingforeitherZhangLiorRoger,thencompareyourresultswithothergroupmembers.FirstMeetingofZhangLiandRogerDifferentFunctionsofCulturalPuzzleBanquet.

FunctionofAChineseBanquetDevelop,strengthenandrenewrelationships.Deepmeaningisembodiedintheactofgivingabanquet.Qualityoffoodrevealsstatusofguestsandhost,andrelationshipsofparticipants.Thefoundingofanewrelationiscelebrated.Wordsnotpersonalorinformativearespokenintherightwayattherighttime.Setthestageforabusinessnegotiation.

FunctionofContractMeaningisinthewords.Carefulattentionisneededtomakesurenounfavorableprovisionshiddeninthelegallanguage.Oncesigned,whateverhappens,bothpartiesarebound.Nosituationalfactorsaretakenintoconsideration.However,toChinese,acontractisthebeginningofanewstageofrelationship.Whatreallymattersisnotpapercontractsbutsocialconnections.ComparetheAmericantablemannerswiththeChinesetablemanners.ResearchTaskTHEENDSummary:

DifferenceintermsofInterpersonalRelationshipsEastWestEmphasisObligationsCommitmentHumanrightsFreedomPurposeHarmonyExtensionofselfNatureReciprocalSymmetricalCharacteristicsIndebtednessContractualOrientationOther/listenerorientedSelf-orientedANDSummary:

DifferenceintermsofInterpersonalRelationshipsEastWestInterdependentIndependentComplementaryCompetitiveTolerantIntolerantPersonalProfessional/ImpersonalSympathetic/EmpatheticObjectivePersonal&PublicRelationshipOverlapPersonal&publicRelationshipSeparatedLongterm&stablerelationshipShortterm&instablerelationshipBACK跨文化交际阅读与案例评析DailyVerbalCommunicationUnit3Moreismeantthanmeetstheear.

--EnglishproverbObjectives:ThislectureaimstohelpstudentsToidentifytheculturaldifferenceindailyverbalcommunicaitoncases.Tofindareasonablewaytoreacttoculturaldifferences.Allculturesrequireandvaluepoliteness,butthewaysinwhichpolitenessisachievedmayvarysignificantly.Compliments

and

ComplimentResponsesReadthefollowingexamples:AyoungChinesewomanintheU.S.wascomplimentedbyanAmericanwomanforthelovelydressshewaswearing:“It’sexquisite.Thecolorsaresobeautiful!”Shewaspleasedbutsomewhatembarrassed.IntypicalChinesefashion,shereplied,“Oh,its’justandordinarydressIboughtinChina.”CertainremarksthatarefittingandproperinChinesemayleadtomisunderstandingsinothercultures.Thefollowingaretwoexamples”Aforeignvisitorwaslookingatthehost’pottedflowerswithobviousadmiration.Theplantswerebloomingprofusely.Thehostremarkeddiffidently,“Growingflowersismyhobby,butI’mnotmuchgoodatit.”SocialFunctionsofComplimentscreatingorreinforcingsolidaritygreetingpeopleexpressingthanksorcongratulationsencouragingpeoplesofteningcriticismstartingaconversationovercomingembarrassment.DifferencesBetweenChineseandEnglishComplimentsTheSemanticFormula

TheoverwhelmingmajorityofEnglishcomplimentscontainoneofahighlyrestrictedsetofadjectivesandverbs.

Thiswasagreatmeal.Youlooksonicetoday.Youdidagoodjob.

Ilikeyourhaircut.Iloveyourglasses.Ireallyenjoyedyourclass.InChinese,however,positivewordsexpressingcomplimentsaremainlyadjectives,adverbsandverbs.

裙子很漂亮。Your/Thisskirtisverypretty.这房间不错。Thisroomisreallygood.你真是位经验丰富的老师。Youarereallyanexperiencedteacher.你干得不错。Youdidthejobverywell.你很用功，进步也很快。Youstudyhardandmakeprogressveryrapidly.

你待人很好。Youtreatpeoplesincerely.

我特别喜欢你衬衫的颜色。Iespeciallylikethecolorofyourblouse.

你该受表扬。Youdeservebeingpraised.

AnotherlinguisticfeatureofChinesecomplimentsisthatmanyofthembeginwithpronouns“you”or“your”,whileinEnglishcomplimentsthepronoun“I”(asin“Iloveit”and“Ilikeit”)ismorefrequentlyused.ExpressionofGratitudeandApologyinEnglishandChineseCaseStudyThiscasedemonstratestheAmericandirectandChineseindirectverbalinteractionstyles.Bycomparison,AmericanstendtouseastraightforwardformofrequestwhereasChinesetendtoaskforafavorinamoreroundaboutandimplicitway.Valuesof

WesternPeopleCulturalPuzzleFriends?Visiting-Ideasoftime

ForAmerican,timeismoney.Theysay,“Youonlygetsomuchtimeinthislife;you‘dbetteruseitwisely.”Americanaretrainedtoseethings,unlesspeopleusetheirtimeforconstructiveactivities.Thus,Americansadmirea“well-organized”person,onewhohasawrittenlistofthingstodoandaschedulefordoingthem.Theidealpersonispunctualandisconsiderateofotherpeople‘stime.theydonotwastepeople'stimewithconversationorotheractivitythathasnovisiblebeneficialoutcome.ResearchTaskInanyculture,somewordsandexpressionsaretobeavoidedbecausetraditionorsocialcustomstronglyfrownsontheiruse.Theseareverbaltaboos.PleasegotothelibraryorbeonlinetocollectinformationaboutverbaltaboosinEnglishlanguageandChineselanguage.Taboo8/23/2026THEENDTaboo:Atabooisastrongsocialprohibition(orban)relatingtoanyareaofhumanactivityorsocialcustomthatissacredandforbiddenbasedonmoraljudgmentandsometimesevenreligiousbeliefs.AgeMoneyHealthFamilyTabooofChineseExpressionofGratitudeandApologyinEnglishandChineseExpressionsofGratitude Thanks. Manythanks. Thanksalot. Thankyouverymuch.Thankyouverymuchindeed.Ireallydon’tknowhowtothankyouenough.I’mthankfultoyouforallthishelp.MoredetailsExpressionsofGratitude Iamgratefultoyouforyourkindness.Igreatlyappreciateyourtimelyhelp.It’sverykind(good,nice)ofyoutocomeandhelpus.太谢谢（你）了。很/非常/十分/万分感谢。麻烦/辛苦您了。您受累了。MoredetailsFormulaicResponsestotheExpressionsAboveNotatall.You’rewelcome.Don’tmentionit.It’smy/ourpleasure.That’sallright.That’sOK.Moredetails不客气。不用谢。谢什么。没关系。这算不了什么。这是我应该做的。

ExpressionsofApology:Excuseme.I’msorry.Sorryaboutthat.I’mvery/so/terribly/awfully/extremelysorryforthat.Ican’ttellyouhowsorryIam.Ibegyourpardon(for…)Pardonme.Athousandpardonsfor…MoredetailsExpressionsofApology:Iapologize.Imustapologizeformyrudeness/fault/mistake,etc.Imustbegtoapologizefor…Imustmakeanapologyfor…MayIofferyoumyprofoundestapologies.MayIofferyoumysincerestapologiesforthewrongsI’vedoneyou.MoredetailsExpressionsofApology:对不起。不好意思。请原谅/谅解(我的过失/鲁莽/错误/粗心)我道歉。难以表达内心的抱歉。向你表达深深的歉意。为我的过失/鲁莽/错误/粗心表示最真诚的歉意。MoredetailsFormulaicResponsestotheExpressionsAbove:MoredetailsItdoesn’tmatteratall.Nevermind(aboutthat).Noharmdone.Noproblem.Forgetit.Pleasedon’tworry.That’squiteallright.

FormulaicResponsestotheExpressionsAbove:MoredetailsIquiteunderstand.It’snotyourfault.It’snothing.Pleasedon’tblameyourself.Thereisnoreasontoapologize.It’sreallynotnecessary.FormulaicResponsestotheExpressionsAbove:BACK没关系。不要紧。没事。我理解。不是你的过错。不用道歉/自责。跨文化交际阅读与案例评析Unit4

InterculturalNon-verbalCommunicationThereislanguageinhereye,hercheek,herlip,nay,herfootspeaks.ShakespeareObjectives:TounderstandthedefinitionofNonverbalCommunication.TounderstandthefunctionofNonverbalCommunication.Tounderstandtimeandspacelanguage.

EveryculturehasrulesabouttheCORRECTuseofspace.Theproxemic

(relatingtothestudyofspace)

rulesareunwrittenandnevertaught--buttheyareverypowerful.

Flightisthemostcommonresponsetospatialinvasions,andonly2%ofthe"invaded"peopleinproxemicsexperimentseversayanythingtothosewhoinvadetheirpersonalspace.Theinvasionisstressfulfortheinvaded,makinganearlydepartureisalmostcertain.Example-FlightNogesturehasthesamemeaning!!Thereisno'internationallanguage'ofgestures.Instead,cultureshavedevelopedsystemsofuniquegestures,anditisalmostneverpossibleforustounderstandintuitivelythegesturesfromanotherculture.

Frenchgesturefor

“Idon'tbelieveyou”

GuesswhatthisIraniangesturemeans?

No.1forme.Goodluck!Screwyou!Screwyou!

Thisgestureteachesanextremelyimportantlesson.ThisgestureisidenticaltotheAmerican/Englishgesturefor‘GoodLucktoyou.’Butitisanobscene(淫猥的)gesture,andanAmericantravelinginIranwouldoutragepeoplethereiftheAmericanperformedthisgesture.Wheninanothercultureorsociety,weshouldnever'mirror'agesturethatsomeonepresentstous--withoutknowingit,wecouldbedeeplyoffendingthatpersonandinvitingconflict.Whowonthegameofone-on-onebasketball?

a.Themanontheleftb.ThemanontherightThemanontherightHeseemsconfident,poisedandmodest--allqualitiesthatsuggestheisthewinnerofthegame.FunctionsofNonverbalCommunicationNonverbalcodes

refertocommunicativemessageswhichare

not

inwordform.Morethan

55%

messagesarecommunicatednonverbally!FunctionsofNonverbalCommunicationRepeatingComplementingSubstitutingRegulatingContradictingPeopleturntobelievenonverbalcodeswhentheycontradicttheverbalones!NonverbalCommunication

Definition:(1)“Metacommunication(beyondtheusualcommmunication),paralinguistics,second-ordermessages,thesilentlanguage,andthehiddendimensionofcommunication.”(Hall,1959)Nonverbalcommunicationinvolvesallnonverbalstimuliinacommunicationsettingthatisgeneratedbyboththesourceandhisorheruseoftheenvironmentandthathaspotentialmessagevalueforthesourceorreceiver.(SamovarandPorter,2004)NonverbalCommunication

Definition:(2)非言语交际包括在交际中认为的和环境产生的对于传播者或受传者含有潜在信息的所有的刺激，简单地说就是“不用语言的交际”，被称作“无声的语言”。非语言交际在人类交际中非常重要。因为它最能反映一个人的情感或情绪状态。一个人（或多个人）不利用言语形式或只利用副语言形式所传达的信息被另一个人（或多个人）接收的交际行为。

NonverbalCommunication

DefinitioninChineseAnOverviewofNonverbalCommunicationBodyLanguageGeneralappearanceanddressGesturesEyecontactFacialexpressionPostureTouching2.ParalanguageSilencePitchVolumn3.EnvironmentLanguageSpaceTimeDifferentcategorization

毕继万（1995）体态语（bodylanguage，包括各种表情、动作、姿态）副语言（paralanguage，包括沉默与非语义声音）客体语（objectlanguage，包括皮肤颜色、气味、衣着化妆、家具等）环境语言（environmentallanguage，包括时间，空间、颜色、城市规划以及人对自然的影响等，即影响生理与心理的环境因素）。Differentcategorization

Andersen

(1991)(1)时间学(chronemics)——研究人们利用时间的方式及其意义。空间学（proxemics）——研究人际距离及空间使用方式及其意义。身势学（kinesics）——研究人们的面部表情（facialexpression）、身体动作（bodymovements）、手势（gestures）等。体触学。（haptics）——研究身体接触所传达的信息。Differentcategorization

Andersen

(1991)(2)外表（physicalappearance）——研究人们的肤色、衣着打扮及身体形态等。目光学（oculesics）——研究人们通过目光接触（eyecontact），眨眼（blinks），眼珠转动（eyemovements）及瞳孔放大（pupildilation）等所传达的信息。副语言（paralanguage／vocalics）——研究声音的非言语成分（nonverbalelements）所传达的信息。嗅觉学（olfactics）——研究人们如何通过气味来传达信息。DetailedUnderstandings

ofGesturesDoyouknowwhatthefollowinggesturesmeans?

GestureNumber1isusedtogetherwiththeverbalmessage“Let’skeepourfingerscrossed”intheUnitedStates,England,andSwedentomeanthatthepersonishopingforgoodluck.ButinGreeceandTurkeyitmeansthebreakingofafriendship,andinpartsofItalyitmeans“O.K.”.

GestureNumber2isnormallyusedwhentalkingprivatelyaboutathirdperson,meaningthatpersoniscrazy,ofteninajokingway.Number3indicates“Ihavenoidea.”“Idon’tknow.”ThegestureinPicture4meansthat“Ican’t/didn’thearyou.”Number5means“That’senough.It’salloverforme.”InPicture6the“thumbsdown”signindicates“rejection”or“refusal”,“defeat”or“nogood”or“badnews”toAmericans.“Somethingisabitsuspicious/oddhere.”“Comehere.”Number9iswidelyusedintheUStomean“Great,perfect,acceptable,O.K.”ButisBelgiumandFrance,itmeans“zero”;inTurkey,Brazil,Greece,andMalta,ithasanobscenemeaning;andinTunisia,itisusedasathreat.Number10isusedinItalytosay“Hello.”ForIndonesians,Malaysians,andsomespeakersofArabic,itsignals“Comehere.”Number11means“Oh,Iforgot.”oranexpressionofsurprise.ThegestureinNumber12means“Slowdown,relaxorwaitasecond.”Number13isusedtoshowthatsomeoneisachampionorawinner,usuallyinsports.Thisgesturecausedaseriousinternationalmisunderstandingin1959.NikitaKhrushchev,theSovietleader,wasvisitingtheUSandusedthisgesture,whichmeansfriendshipinRussia.Americannewspapersprinteditonpageone.AndtheAmericanpeopleunderstoodittomeantheopposite:thattheSovietUnionwoulddefeattheUS.Picture14isoneofthefewgestureswhichseemstobeusedonlyintheUS,andmanypeoplefeelitisnotascommonasitoncewas.Thisgestureismadebymovingoneindexfingeragainsttheother.Itisusuallyusedwithchildren.Oradultsdoitasajoke.Itmeans“Youdidsomethingbad;shameonyou.”EyecontactThoutell’stmethereismurderinmineeye.ShakespeareYourlipstellmeno,no,butthere’syes,yesinyoureyes.MusicalballadEyecontactInacrowdedbus,asubwayortrain,thepropereyecontacttimecouldbesome10seconds.Onlyalecturerorapoliticianaddressinganaudiencecanholdeyecontactaslongashewishes.Ifyouavoideyecontact,you’llberegardedascold,distant,unconfidentandnotinvolvedintheconversation.Generallyspeaking,ifyoulookatyourpartner’seyesfromtimetotimewhilespeaking,you’llberegardedassociable,friendly,confidentandfrank.Directeye-to-eyecontactisnotuniversalAteenagePuertoRicangirlinaNewYorkhighschoolwastakenwithanumberofothergirlstotheprincipalforsuspectedsmoking.Althoughtherewasnoproofofanywrongdoingandalthoughshehadagoodrecord,theprincipaldecidedshewasguiltyandsuspectedher.“Therewassomethingslyandsuspiciousabouther.”hesaidinhisreport.“shejustwouldn’tmeetmyeyes.Shewouldn’tlookatme.”Eye-to-eyeContact

Cross-culturalDifferencesUSAvs.France&Italy

ManyAmericanwomenvisitingFranceorItalyareacutelyembarrassedbecause,forthefirsttimeintheirlives,menreallylookatthemtheireyes,hair,nose,lips,breasts,hips,legs,thighs,knees,ankles,feet,clothes,hairdo,eventheirwalk.

Thesesamewomen,oncehavingbecomeusedtobeinglookedat,oftenreturntotheUnitedSatesandareovercomewiththefeelingthat“Nooneeverreallylooksatmeanymore.”HowaboutpeopleinChinaandJapan?

WhiteAmericanvs.BlackAmerican“LookatmewhenItalktoyou!”“Don’tlookatmeinthattoneofvoice!”

Thewhitespeakerinterpretsintendedrespectofblackbehaviorasdishonestyoratleastinattentiveness.Eye-to-eyeContact

Co-culturedifferencesPostureAmanandawomanmetonthetrainplatform.

Willthewomanaccepttheman’sgreetingfriendly?Shewon’t!Man:“halfsmile”expressionarelaxedposition“snap”gesturebodyorientationWoman:“frowning”expression“chinup”facialposition“backing”postureLegstogetherFeetpointinginwardsYoudon’tjust“read”others’bodylanguage;Youobserve,analyzeandinterpretbeforeyoudecidethepossiblemeaning!Matchthefollowingdescriptionswiththebehaviors:Thepersonisveryrelaxed,buthe/sheisreadytomoveatanytime.Thepersonisindeepthinking.He/shethinksthatmaybeagoodideaandisreadytomoveafterthethinking.Thepersonisverygladtoseetheother.Actuallyhe/shethinksthatpersonisimportant.Thepersonisveryconfident.He/shethinkshe/sheismoreimportantthantheother.Thepersonhasmadeuphis/hermind.He/sheisveryangry,buttriestocontrolhim-/her-self.Thepersondeterminestocontrolhis/herfeelings,tryingtocalmdown.Thepersonpresentshim-/her-selfasanimportantman.Buthe/shetriestobefriendlytoothers.DEAFCGB

SittingorStanding?Inwesterncountries,peoplewhostandaremoreimportantthanthosewhosit(unlessthereisatablebetweenthem),becausetheformercouldcontrolthelatter.BowinginJapanInJapan,mutualbowingislargelydeterminedbyrank.“bowingcontest”Bendslightlytoone’srightBecomingautomaticmovement,e.g.bowwhenmakingphonecallTouchingOneoftheverycommonmannersoftouchinghandshakingmayresultinconflictwhenperformedwithnoconsiderationofculturaldifferences.Amongmiddle-classNorthAmericanmen,itiscustomarytoshakehandsasagestureoffriendship.Whenwantingtocommunicateextrafriendliness,amaleintheU.S.may,whileshakinghands,graspwithhislefthandhisfriend’srightarm.

Once,aNorthAmericanbusinessmanvisitingMiddleEasterncountriesattemptedtoemphasizethesincerityofhisfriendshipinthismannertohisSaudiArabianbusinesspartner.However,theSaudiArabianbusinessmanwasgreatlydispleased.

IntheMuslinworld,thelefthandisprofane(亵渎的)andtouchingsomeonewithitishighlyoffensive.

Why?TimeandSpaceLanguageTimeisaconception,aculture,andwaysoflife.Differentcultureshavedifferentinterpretationandconceptionoftime.TimeAmericanssaythathewhohesitatesislost,whileweChineseoftensaythatthinkthreetimesbeforeyouact.(Thinktwicebeforeyouleap.)Timesystems(Hall,1976)Doyoustillremembertimeorientation?MonochronicTime(M-Time)PolychronicTime(P-Time)美国人类学家EdwardHall在BeyondCulture

（《超越文化》）一书中首次区分了两种不同的时间观念,即“单向计时制”（monochronictime）和“多向计时制”（polychronictime)MonochronicTime(M-Time)

Itschedulesoneeventatatime.Intheseculturestimeisperceivedasalinearstructurejustlikearibbonstretchingfromthepastintothefuture.

e.g.AmericanPeople“单向计时制重视日程安排、阶段时间和准时”,

认为“时间是线性的、可分割的，就象一条道路或带子向前伸展到未来，向后延伸到过去”。MonochronicTime(M-Time)“在我们看来，同时做两件事几乎有点不道德。”持有这种时间取向的英美人士把时间看成具体实在（tangible）的东西,可以节省（save）、花费（spend）、赚得（earn）、浪费（waste）、失去（lose）、弥补（makeup）、计量(measure）、甚至当成商品一样买卖（buy,sell）和拥有（have）。美国人特别强调把时间分割成不同的时段来安排活动,强调守时,严格按照日程一次做一件事情（doonethingatatime）。PolychronicTime(P-Time)

P-timeschedulesseveralactivitiesatthesametime.Itismoreflexibleandmorehumanistic.PeoplefromP-timesystememphasizetheinvolvementofpeoplemorethanschedules.Theydonotseeappointmentsasironcladcommitmentsandoftenbreakthem.

e.g.Chinese,LatinAmerican,ArabandmostAsiancultures

PolychronicTime(P-Time)霍尔还认为,“多向计时制的特征是同时进行好几件事情”,强调人们参与并做完事情,不僵守预先安排的日程表。“多向计时制往往被看成一个时点而不是一条带子或道路”。多数亚洲民族持有这种非线性的时间取向,做事不太严守时间日程,安排比较灵活,而且不把时间看得那么具体、实在。TimeandSpaceLanguage

SpaceMarkingyourownspaceorterritory:towelatthebeach?coatorhandbagontheseatnexttoyou?bookinthelibrary?yourowncornerorchairinashared apartment?curtaintoseparateyourdeskandbedinyourdorm?

Spaceincludesthepersonalspaceandterritoriality.Animalsandhumanbeingsbothstakeouttodefendtheirterritories.Theterritorialinvasionofacountrymayleadtothedeclarationofwar.Butpeopleasindividualsmaynotbesopugnacious(好斗的).

Amoretangibleformofcommunicationbetweenpeopleistheuseandcontrolofspace.Territoriality（领域性）

Peopleerectflags,fences,andwallstoclaimtheirterritory.E.g.theGreatWallPeoplemayhavepublicterritoriesthatareopentoall,suchasatableinalibrary,aseatinsuchpublicplacesasbanks,postoffices,parks,oraparkinglot.

Peopleusuallyuseamarkertosignalhis/hertemporaryownershipinapublicsetting.(Markersmaybeabook,aschoolbag,asuitcasethatcanrepresentpersonalexistence.Themarkerasatemporaryoccupancyisvalidaslongasothersrespectit,otherwiseinvasionmayhappen.)Researchersshowthatpeoplemayreactinseveraldifferentways.Withdrawalisthefirstalternativeinfrontofaviolation.PersonalSpaceThepersonalspaceistheportableterritorywithinvisibleboundariesthatexpandorcontract,dependingonthesituation.Inotherword,wecarrybodybubbleswithuswhicharelikeinvisiblewallsthatdefinedourpersonalspace.Whatmightbethefactorsthatwillaffectpersonalspaceofpeople?Decisivefactors:theirgender,age,culturalsettingandrelationshiptotheirtalkingpartners.NorthAmericans’distancehabit

0~50cm:intimateloversandfamilymembers

>50~120cm:

friends(personaldistance)>120~270cm:acquaintances(socialdistance)>270cm:publicspace,notbelongtooneselfBehind:strangersspeakingfrombehindareallowedtostandmuchmorenearer.

Someculturessimplydonotthinkofprivate,personalbodyspace.

e.g.Sometimes,fiftyAfricanscancrowdintothesameamountofspacethatholdsonlytwentyNor