托福阅读tpo70R-3原文+译文+题目+答案+背景知识

托福阅读tpo70R-3原文+译文+题目+答案+背景知识

原文........................................................................1

译文........................................................................5

题目........................................................................8

答案.......................................................................15

背景知识...................................................................17

原文

Functionalism

©Inbiology,differentpartsofanorganismmaybedescribedbytheir

functions,orthepartstheyplayinmaintainingthelifeofthewhole

organism.Functionalisminsocialsciencesimilarlylooksfortherole

(function)someaspectofcuitureorsociallifeplaysinmaintaininga

system.Twoquitedifferentschoolsoffunctionalismarosein

conjunctionwithtwoBritishanthropologists-BronislawMalinowski

(1884-1942)andA.R.Radcliffe-Brown(1881-1955).

②Malinowski'sversionoffunctionalismassumesthatallculturaltraits

servetheneedsofindividualsinasociety-thatis,thefunctionofa

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culturaltraitisitsabilitytosatisfysomebasicorderivedneedofthe

membersofthegroup.Thebasicneedsincludenutrition,

reproduction,bodilycomfort,safety,relaxation,movement,andgrowth.

Someaspectsoftheculturesatisfythesebasicneeds.Indoingsothey

giverisetoderivedneedsthatmustalsobesatisfied.For

example,culturaltraitsthatsatisfythebasicneedforfoodgiveriseto

thesecondary,orderivedzneedforcooperationinfoodcollectionor

production.Societieswillinturndevelopformsofpoliticalorganization

andsocialcontrolthatguaranteetherequiredcooperation.Howdid

Malinowskiexplainsuchthingsasreligionandmagic?Hesuggested

thatsincehumansalwayslivewithacertainamountofuncertaintyand

anxiety,theyneedstabilityandcontinuity.Religionandmagicare

functionalinthattheyservethoseneeds.

③UnlikeMalinowski,Radcliffe-Brownfeltthatthevariousaspectsof

socialbehaviormaintainasociety'ssocialstructureratherthan

satisfyingindividualneeds.Bysocialstructurehemeantthetotal

networkofexistingsocialrelationshipsinasociety.Since

Radcliffe-Brown'sversionoffunctionalismemphasizedthesocial

structureasthesystemtobemaintainedthroughthedevelopmentof

supportingrules,practices,andcustoms,theterm"structural

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functionalism"isoftenusedtodescribehisapproach.

@AnexampleofRadcliffe-Brown'sstructural-functionalistapproachis

hisanalysisofthewaysinwhichdifferentsocietiesdealwiththe

tensionsthatarelikelytodevelopamongpeoplerelatedthrough

marriage.Toreducepotentialtensionbetweenin-laws,he

suggested,societiesdooneoftwothings.Theymaydevelopstrictrules

forbiddingthepersonsinvolvedevertointeractfacetoface(asdothe

Navajos,forexample,inrequiringamantoavoidhismother-in-law),or

theymayallowmutualdisrespectandteasingbetweenthein-laws

Radcliffe-Brownsuggestedthatavoidanceislikelytooccurbetween

in-lawsofdifferentgenerations,whereasdisrespectfulteasingislikely

betweenin-lawsofthesamegeneration.Bothavoidanceandteasing,

hesuggested,arewaystoavoidrealconflictandhelpmaintainthe

socialstructure.

⑤ThemajorobjectiontoMalinowski'sfunctionalismisthatitcannot

readilyaccountforculturalvariation.Mostoftheneedshe

identified-suchastheneedforfood-areuniversal:allsocietiesmust

dealwiththemiftheyaretosurvive.Thus,whilethefunctionalist

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approachmaytelluswhyallsocietiesengageinfoodgetting,itcannot

tellwhydifferentsocietieshavedifferentfood-gettingpractices.In

otherwords,functionalismdoesnotexplainwhycertainspecific

culturalpatternsarisetofulfillaneedthatmightbefulfilledjustas

easilybyanyofanumberofalternativepossibilities.

⑥Amajorproblemofthestructural-functionalistapproachisthatitis

difficulttodeterminewhetheraparticularcustomisinfactfunctional

inthesenseofcontributingtothemaintenanceofthesocialsystem.In

biologythecontributionanorganmakestothehealthorlifeofan

animalcanbeassessedbyremovingit.Butwecannotsubtracta

culturaltraitfromasocietytoseeifthetraitreallydoescontributeto

themaintenanceofthatgroup.Itisconceivablethatcertaincustoms

withinthesocietymaybeneutralorevendetrimentaltoits

maintenance.Wecannotassumethatallofasociety'scustomsare

functionalmerelybecausethesocietyisfunctioningatthemoment.

Andevenifweareabletoassesswhetheraparticularcustomis

functional,thistheoreticalorientationfailstodealwiththequestionof

whyaparticularsocietychoosestomeetitsstructuralneedsina

particularway.Agivenproblemdoesnotnecessarilyhaveonlyone

solution.Westillmustexplainwhyoneofseveralpossiblesolutionsis

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chosen.

译文

功能主义

①在生物学中，生物体的不同部分可以根据它们的功能或它们在整

个生物体生命维界中所扮演的角色来描述。社会科学中的功能主义

也类似地寻求某种文化或社会生活的某个方面在维持一个系统中

所起的作用。与两位英国人类学家一一布罗尼斯拉夫•马林诺夫斯

基(1884-1942)和A.R.拉德克利夫・布朗(1881-1955)相关的两个

截然不同的功能主义学派应运而生C

②马林诺夫斯基的功能主义观点假定所有文化特征都服务于社会

中个体的需要一一也就是说，一个文化特征的功能在于它能够满足

群体成员的某些基本或衍生需求。基本需求包括营养、繁殖、身体

舒适、安全、放松、运动和成长。文化的某些方面满足这些基本需

求。在此过程中，它们产生了必须得到满足的衍生需求。例如，满

足食物基本需求的文化特征引发了次级的或衍生的需求，如在收集

或生产食物中的合作。社会随后会发展出政治组织和社会控制的形

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式，以确保所需的合作。那么，马林诺夫斯基是如何解释宗教和魔

法这样的事物的呢？他提出，由于人类总是生活在一定程度的不确

定性和焦虑之中，他们需要稳定性和连续性。宗教和魔法在这些方

面发挥着功能，因为它们满足了这些需求。

③与马林诺夫斯基不同，拉德克利夫・布朗认为社会行为的各个方面

是维持一个社会的社会结构的，而不是满足个体需求的。他所说的

社会结构是指一个社会中所有现有社会关系的总网络。由于拉德克

利夫-布朗的功能主义版本强调通过发展支持性的规则、实践和习俗

来维持社会结构这一系统，因此“结构功能主义”这个词常用来描

述他的方法。

④拉德克利夫-布朗的结构功能主义方法的一个例子是他分析了不

同社会如何处理通过婚姻关系联系起来的人们之间可能产生的紧

张关系。为了减少姻亲之间潜在的紧张，他提出，社会可能会采取

两种做法之一。他们可能会制定严格的规则，禁止相关人士面对面

互动（比如纳瓦霍人要求一个男人避开他的岳母）；或者他们可能

会允许姻亲之间相互不尊重和戏弄。拉德克利夫・布朗认为，避免接

触更可能发生在不同代际的姻亲之间，而缺乏尊重的戏弄则更可能

发生在同代姻亲之间。他认为，无论是避免接触还是戏弄，都是为

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了避免真正的冲突，并有助于维持社会结构。这段话阐述了拉德克

利夫・布朗如何运用结构功能主义的观点来分析社会中的家庭关系

和社会规范。他关注的是社会如何通过特定的方式来调节人际关系,

从而保持社会的稳定性和秩序。在这个例子中，他指出了两种不同

的策略一一避免接触和不尊重的戏弄一一这两种策略都被用来管

理姻亲之间的关系，以防止可能导致社会不稳定或破裂的严重冲突。

⑤对马林诺夫斯基的功能主义的主要反对意见在于，它难以解释文

化变异。他识别出的多数需求一一如获取食物的需求一一是普遍存

在的：所有社会都必须应对这些需求，如果它们要生存下去。因此，

尽管功能主义的方法可能告诉我们为什么所有社会都从事食物获

取活动，但它无法解释为什么不同社会有不同的食物获取实践。换

句话说，功能主义没有解释为什么某些特定的文化模式会出现，以

满足一个可以通过多种替代可能性同样容易满足的需求。

⑥结构功能主义方法的一个主要问题是，很难确定一个特定的习俗

是否确实具有功能性，即它是否有助于维持社会系统的稳定。在生

物学中，我们可以通过移除一个器官来评估它对动物健康或生命的

贡献。但是，我们不能从社会中减去一个文化特征来观察它是否真

的有助于维持该群体。可以想象，社会中的某些习俗可能是中性的,

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甚至对其维持有害。我们不能仅仅因为社会目前正在运作就假设其

所有习俗都是具有功能的。即使我们能够评估某个特定习俗是否具

有功能，这种理论取向也未能解决为什么一个特定社会选择以特定

方式满足其结构性需求的问题。一个问题并不一定只有一种解决方

案。我们仍然必须解释为什么在多个可能的解决方案中选择了某一

个。

题目

l.Accordingtoparagraph2,allofthefollowingstatementsaretrue

aboutMalinowski'sversionoffunctionalismEXCEPT

A.Itarguesthatreligionandmagichelppeopletofeelsafeandsecure.

B.Itrecognizesthatsecondaryneedsemergewhenculturaltraits

satisfyabasicneed.

C.Itisbasedontheprinciplethattheculturalattributesofasociety

existtomeettheneedsofindividualsinthatsociety.

D.Itclaimsthatformsofpoliticalorganizationandsocialcontrolonly

developafterallthebasicneedsofasocietyhavebeenmet.

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③UnlikeMalinowski,Radcliffe-Brownfeltthatthevariousaspectsof

socialbehaviormaintainasociety'ssocialstructureratherthan

satisfyingindividualneeds.Bysocialstructurehemeantthetotal

networkofexistingsocialrelationshipsinasociety.Since

Radcliffe-Brown'sversionoffunctionalismemphasizedthesocial

structureasthesystemtobemaintainedthroughthedevelopmentof

supportingrules,practices,andcustoms,theterm"structural

functionalism"isoftenusedtodescribehisapproach.

2.Whichofthesentencesbelowbestexpressestheessential

informationinthehighlightedsentenceinthepassage?Incorrect

choiceschangethemeaninginimportantwaysorleaveoutessential

information.

A.Theanalysisofrules,practices’andcustomsimproved

Radcliffe-Brown'sapproachtothestudyoffunctionalstructuralism.

B.Theterm“structuralfunctionalism"isusedforRadcliffe-Brown's

viewthatthefunctionofrules,practices,andcustomsistomaintain

socialstructure.

C.Radcliffe-Brov/n'sversionoffunctionalism,“structural

functionalism,supportsthedevelopmentofsocialstructureby

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maintainingrules,practices,andcustoms.

D.Rules,practices,andcustomsarefeaturesofRadcliffe-Brown's

structuralfunctionalism.

3.Accordingtoparagraph4,theNavajocustomthatrequiresamanto

avoidinteractionwithhismother-in-lawservesto

A.allowforteasingbetweenfamilymembersofdifferentgenerations

B.showhowsocietiesdifferindealingwithrelationshipsbetween

in-laws

C.minimizethechanceofconflictbetweenpeoplerelatedtoone

anotherthroughmarriage

D.distinguishmaritalrelationshipsfromothersocialrelationships

withinthecommunity

4.Accordingtoparagraph5,whatfactdoesMalinowksi'stheory

apparentlyoverlook?

A.Certainculturalpatternsarecommontoallsocieties.

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B.Societiesdifferintheirapproachtoaparticularsocialactivity.

C.Allsocietiesneedsomedegreeofculturalvariationinorderto

survive.

D.Differentsocietieshavedifferentopinionsaboutwhatconstitutesa

basicneed.

5.Theword“detrimental”inthepassageisclosestinmeaningto

A.irrelevant

B.harmful

C.supportive

D.decisive

6.Theworduorientationninthepassageisclosestinmeaningto

A.introduction

B.perspective

C.hypothesis

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D.statement

7.Accordingtoparagraphs5and6,whichofthefollowingisa

shortcomingofbothMalinowski'sandRadcliffe-Brown'sversionsof

functionalism?

A.Neitheroftheirapproachesrecognizestheimportanceofsocial

institutionsinmaintainingthestabilityofasociety.

B.Neitheroftheirapproachesrecognizestheimportanceofcultural

practicestoprovideforthebasicneedsofasociety.

C.Neitheroftheirapproachesisabletoexplainwhyasocietychanges

itsbasicculturalinstitutions,solutions,andpractices.

D.Neitheroftheirapproachesisabletoexplainwhyasocietydevelops

itsparticularculturalinstitutions,solutions,andpractices.

8.Whydoestheauthorbeginthepassagebydiscussingaconceptfrom

biology?

A.Toprovideananalogytothewayfunctionalistsinsocialscience

thinkofasociety

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B.Toarguethatsocietiesdependonculturaltraitsfortheir

maintenanceinthesamewaythatorganismsdependontheirpartsfor

survival

C.Tocomparethepartsofanorganismwiththesocialrolesofpeople

D.Toimplythatearlyfunctionalistswereinfluencedbybiology

9.Lookatthefoursquares[■]thatindicatewherethefollowing

sentencecouldbeaddedtothepassage.Wherewouldthesentence

bestfit?Clickonasquare[B]toaddthesentencetothepassage.

Itsremovalispossiblebecauseitisaphysicalstructurewithdefined

boundaries.

@Amajorproblemofthestructural-functionalistapproachisthatitis

difficulttodeterminewhetheraparticularcustomisinfactfunctional

inthesenseofcontributingtothemaintenanceofthesocialsystem.In

biologythecontributionanorganmakestothehealthorlifeofan

animalcanbeassessedbyremovingit.[l]Butwecannotsubtracta

culturaltraitfromasocietytoseeifthetraitreallydoescontributeto

themaintenanceofthatgroup.[I]ltisconceivablethatcertain

customswithinthesocietymaybeneutralorevendetrimentaltoits

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maintenance.[B]Wecannotassumethatallofasociety'scustomsare

functionalmerelybecausethesocietyisfunctioningatthemoment.

[■]Andevenifweareabletoassesswhetheraparticularcustomis

functional,thistheoreticalorientationfailstodealwiththequestionof

whyaparticularsocietychoosestomeetitsstructuralneedsina

particularway.Agivenproblemdoesnotnecessarilyhaveonlyone

solution.Westillmustexplainwhyoneofseveralpossiblesolutionsis

chosen.

10.Directions:Selectfromthesevenphrasesbelowthephrasesthat

correctlycharacterizeHohokamcultureandthephrasesthatcorrectly

characterizeAnasaziculture.Drageachphraseyouselectintothe

appropriatecolumnofthetable.TwoofthephraseswillNOTbeused.

Thisquestionisworth3points.

OnlyMalinowski'sSchool

OnlyRadcliffe-Brown'sSchool

BothSchools

ANSWERCHOICE

A.Maintainsthatculturesprotectthemselvesagainstdisruptiveforces

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bydevelopingparticularrules,practicesandcustoms

B.Maintainsthataculture'ssolutionstoexistingtensionsproduce

furtherconflictsthatmustthenbedealtwith

C.Maintainsthatculturaltraitsservetheneedsofindividualsina

society

0.Regardsasociety'scustomsandinstitutionsashavingroles

analogoustotheorgansofaplantoranimal

E.Maintainsthathigher-levelsocialstructuresariseoutoftheneedto

efficientlyorganizeeffortstomeetbasicneeds

F.Maintainsthatasocietyscustomsservetomaintainitssocial

structure

答案

1-5.DBCBB

6-9.BDAA

10.CE,AF,D

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小结题解析

OnlyMalinowski'sSchool

C选项对应第2段第1句allculturaltraitsservetheneedsof

individualsinasociety

E选项对应第2段第5句Societieswillinturndevelopformsof

politicalorganizationandsocialcontrolthatguaranteetherequired

cooperation.

OnlyRadcliffe-Brown'sSchool

A选项对应第3段第3句(即简化题)thesocialstructureasthe

systemtobemaintainedthroughthedevelopmentofsupportingrules,

practices,andcustoms

F选项对应第3段第1句thevariousaspectsofsocialbehavior

maintainasociety'ssocialstructure

BothSchools

D选项对应第1段第2句Functionalisminsocialsciencesimilarly

looksfortherole(function)someaspectofcultureorsociallifeplays

inmaintainingasystem.

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背景知识

勃洛尼斯拉夫•马林诺夫斯基(BronislawMalinowski,1884年4月7

日一1942年5月16日)，英国社会人类学家、功能学派创始人之

一。生于波兰，卒于美国。1908年以全奥地利最优等成绩获得物理

学和