英语词汇学课件 chapter 2

EnglishLexicologyChapter2TheGrowthoftheEnglishVocabulary–SourcesEnglishLexicology1.2.3.4.PiontsforThinkingHowshouldEnglishbepositionedinthelanguagefamily?HowdidFrenchaffectthegrowthoftheEnglishvocabulary?HowdidLatinaffecttheEnglishvocabulary?WhatsourcesaremostcommontotheEnglishvocabulary?HowmanyChinesewordshavebeenborrowedintoEnglish?Giveexamples.5.01TheLanguageFamilyofEnglishEnglishLexicologyEnglishLexicologyprotolanguagelanguagefamilylanguagelanguage…languagefamilylanguagefamily…EnglishLexicologyprotolanguageIndo-Europeanfamilylanguagebrancheslanguagebranches…Sino-TibetanfamilySemito-HamiticfamilyBantufamilyUralicfamilyAltaicfamilyMalayo-PolynesianfamilyIndianfamilyWhyisthesuperfamilynamed“Indo-Europeanfamily”?ManyofthedaughterlanguagesfromtheearliestrecordedtimeswerespokenontheIndiansubcontinentFromequallyearlytimesmostofthelanguagesofEuropearedescendedfromthatcommonancestortoo.(Stockwell&Minkova,2001)EnglishLexicologyIndo-EuropeanfamilyBalto-SlavicRussianPollishPrussianBulgarianSlovenianCzechLithuanianArmenian&AlbanianArmenian(EasternandWesterndialects)isspokenintheCaucasusMountainsandalsobyArmeniandiasporaAlbanian,ancestorofthemodernAlbanianIndo-IranianPersianHindiSanskritlanguageofGypsiesItalicLatinRomancelanguagesFrenchSpanishItalianPortugueseRomanianGermanicEnglishGermanDutchYiddishSwedishNorwegianIcelandicDanishCelticGaelicWelshBritonHallenicGreekEnglishLexicologyCanyoufindconnectionsamongthefollowingcolumns?TASKIndianIndo-IranianGroupSlavicArmenianGermanicHellenic(Greek)ItalicCelticAlbanianDutchGermanEnglishYiddishtheScandinavianlanguagesSino-TibetanSemito-HamiticBantuUralicIndo-EuropeanAltaicMalayo-Polynesian02FromOldEnglishtoModernEnglishEnglishLexicologyEnglishLexicologyUnderstandingthegrowthoftheEnglishlanguageshouldnotbeisolatedfromitshistory.UnderstandingthehistorymaygiveusaninsightintothenatureofEnglish:extremelyrichandheterogeneous,aheavyborrower,fullofsynonyms,agloballanguage.LinguistsusuallydividethehistoryoftheEnglishlanguageintothreeperiods,OldEnglish(450-1100),MiddleEnglish(1100-1500)andModernEnglish(1500-).OldEnglishMiddleEnglishModernEnglish450

1100

1500

EnglishLexicology2.1EarlyBritishhistoryandOldEnglish’sGermanicWords55BCTheinvasionledbyJuliusCaesarAD43MostofBritaincameunderRomanoccupation;CeltsfledtoWalesandScotland.OriginalinhabitantsinBritain:CeltsOldEnglishSpeaksCelticAfterAD400CeltsresortedtoGermanicsoldierstodefendtheVikings;GermanictribescontrolledEngland.Angle-ishbecamethepredominantlanguage,fromwhichtoday’sEnglishisderived.EnglishLexicology2.1EarlyBritishhistoryandOldEnglish’sGermanicWordsAD830EnglandwasunitedunderKingAlfredtheGreat.OldEnglishDifferentdialects:DialectofWessex(theSaxons)Kentishdialect(theJutes)MercianandNorthumbriandialects(theAngles)AD597IntroductionofChristianitybyAugustineofCanterbury.SinceAD790TheScandinaviansbegantosettleinEngland.BringingmanyScandinavianwordsintoEnglishAD1066NormanConquestEnglishLexicology2.1EarlyBritishhistoryandOldEnglish’sGermanicWordsItisestimatedthatOldEnglishhadavocabularyofabout25,000to30,000words.Homogeneous:ManyofthemcamedownfromtheIndo-Europeanparentlanguage,

whicharerelatedtonatureandthebasichumanlife:

be,brother,do,long,me,mine,that,two,etc.TheotherearlyGermanicwordsthatenteredthevocabularylaterarealsofoundtohaveaconnectionwiththesametheme:boat,earth,fox,house,meat,rain,starve,thief,wife,etc.Loanwords:Celtic,Latin,andScandinavianwerethethreemajorcontributors.EnglishLexicology2.2MiddleEnglishPeriod:TremendousChangeAD1204KingPhilipofFrancetookNormandyfromEngland→centralFrancebecametheinterestofEnglandMoreFrenchwordswereborrowedintoEnglish.ManyoldEnglishwordsbegantobereplacedbynewborrowings,suchasarmy,assembly,defense,mayor,navy,parliament,state.Bilingualcountry:Frenchastherulinglanguageforthenobility,Englishaseverydaylanguageforordinarypublic.IntheEnglishvocabulary,Frenchwordswereborrowedespeciallyinthefieldsrelatedtothegovernmentoftherulingclass,suchasindict,jury,verdict.AD1066NormanConquestEnglishLexicology2.2MiddleEnglishPeriod:TremendousChangeAD1362EnglishreplacedFrenchastheofficiallanguageinthelawcourtsofEngland.ThedominanceoftheEnglishlanguageextendedintootherfieldsincludingadministration,commerce,artandeducation.AD1204KingPhilipofFrancetookNormandyfromEngland→centralFrancebecametheinterestofEnglandMoreFrenchwordswereborrowedintoEnglish.Wordsfromthefieldsofliterature,art,scienceandmedicinecameintoEnglishinlargenumbers,suchasliterature,art,science,medicine,logic,pain,poet,thoughmanyofthemoriginatedfromclassicalGreekandLatin.EnglishLexicology2.2MiddleEnglishPeriod:TremendousChangeOthercriticalchanges:Theinflectionsbecamegreatlyreduced,makingtheperiodknownastheperiodofleveledinflections.TheborrowingwordsfromFrenchactuallystartedthetrendforEnglishtoborrowfromotherlanguages.ThegradualadoptionofloanwordsfromoutsidelanguagesalteredEnglish'setymologicalfeatures.MiddleEnglishwitnessedarapidgrowthofvocabularywhichpermanentlychangedtheEnglishlexicon.EnglishLexicologyThechangesinEnglishgrammarreduceditfromahighlyinflectedlanguagetoanextremelyanalyticone,

asyoucanseefromthefollowingindications:(SEE:AlbertC.Baugh&ThomasCable,

AHistoryoftheEnglishLanguage,

1993)1.Inflectionsdecayedandtheeliminationofgrammaticalgenderfollowed;2.Grammarinflectionsweregenerallyreduced;3.Endingsofthenounandadjectivesmarkingdistinctionsofnumberandcaseandoftenofgenderwerealteredinpronunciationastolosetheirdistinctiveform;4.Theuniversalsignofpluralbecame-(e)s;5.Theverbslosttheirinflectionalending,

andalotofstrongverbsdisappeared,

whileothersbecameweak;ReadingTaskEnglishLexicology 6.The“to”andfinal-einfinitiveformoftheverbreplacedthe-anformoftheOldEnglish(forexample:OEdrïfan→driven→drive); 7.Thevowels-a,-o,-u,-eininflectionalendingswereobscuredtoasound,

theso-called“indeterminatevowel”,

whichcametobewrittene(lessofteni,y,u,

dependingonplaceanddate).Asaresult,anumberoforiginallydistinctendingssuchas-a,-u,-e,-an,-umwerereducedgenerallytoauniform–e,

andsuchgrammaticaldistinctionsastheyformerlyexpressedwerenolongerconveyed; 8.Theformsoftheadjectiveswerelevelled; 9.Thepronounslosttheirinflections;wordorderandtheuseofprepositionsmadecleartherelationsofwordsinasentence;thepersonalpronounsretainedmostoftheirdistinctions;thefixedformsfortheReadingTaskEnglishLexicologydemonstrativesbecame:the,this,that,these,those;thesecondpersonsingularthou,thee,thy(you，your)wereabandoned,

andyewasreplacedby“you”，pre-vocalicmineby“my”，thethirdpersonsingularverbending-thby-s; 10.ThechangesinthevocabularyinvolvedthelossofalargepartoftheOldEnglishword-stockandtheadditionofthousandsofwordsfromFrenchandLatin.ReadingTaskEnglishLexicology2.3ModernEnglish(1476-1776)HisworksshowedEnglishtobeawell-developedlanguage.GeoffreyChaucer(1342/43-1400)AD1476Thehistory-makingprintingpresswasintroducedbySirWilliamCaxton.RenaissanceItbroughtanintellectualardorforreinventionandreinterpretationofclassicalmodels.EnglishturnedgraduallyawayfromFrenchborrowingstoLatinandGreekwords.Newwordsinscience,art,andreligionweredirectlyborrowedintoEnglish,includingclimax,appendix,exterior,consult,exotic,curriculum,abdomen,compute,larva,species,asterisk,catastropheandlexicon.EarlyModernEnglishperiod(1476-1776)EnglishLexicology2.3ModernEnglish(1476-1776)HisworkshadasignificantimpactontheEnglishvocabulary.Thousandsofnewwordswerecreatedandmanystillexisttoday,suchascritical,majestic,dwindle,pendant.Shakespeare(1564-1616)AD1611TheKingJamesBibleIthasbecomeagreatsourceforEnglishidiomstoday:aneyeforeye,newwineinoldbottles,thestraightandnarrow,etc.EarlyModernEnglishperiod(1476-1776)AD1755SamuelJohnson’sDictionaryoftheEnglishLanguagewaspublished–thefirstreallyinfluentialdictionaryofEnglish.AD1776AmericanRevolutionAmericansstartedapursuitoflinguisticindependencewithAmericancharacteristics.EnglishLexicology2.3ModernEnglish(1776-)Compoundshaveexamplesofskydiving,greenhouseeffect,acidrain,junkfood,etc.;affixation

hasexamplesofpostwar,preschool,counterattack,subirrigate,etc.;inventednewwordsincludeAlt-right，Snowmageddon,

Monstration,

Kleenex,

xerox，Doggo-Lingo,etc.——Theperiodfollowing1776isknownastheLateModernEnglishperiod.WordformationintheLateModernEnglishperiod:EnglishLexicology2.3ModernEnglish(1776-)HistoricaleventsandtrendsthathaveshapedtheevolutionoftheEnglish:worldtrade;thedevelopmentofscienceandtechnology:SARS-CoV,

coronavirus,

Ebola,

diabetes,

transgenosisinmedicalscience;nuclearweapons,meltdowninphysicalscience;extrovert,behaviorism,defensemechanisminpsychology;automobile,petrol,garageinautoindustry.worldwars:airraid,tank,gasmask,blackout,evacuate,roadblock,etc.theestablishmentofAmericanEnglishandformationoftheimageofAmerica:emancipation,feminist,

liberty,

materialism,

freedomofspeech,

andpuritan.——Theperiodfollowing1776isknownastheLateModernEnglishperiod.EnglishLexicology2.3ModernEnglish(1776-)liberationmovementsincolonies:manynewEnglishvarietieswithlocalculturalandethniccharacteristicswereformedandbecameindependentaftertheirspeakerswonindependencefromcolonization:AustralianEnglish,IndianEnglish,AfricanEnglish,etc.——Theperiodfollowing1776isknownastheLateModernEnglishperiod.TodayEnglishisoneofthemostimportantlanguagesintheworldintermsofeitheritsspeakingpopulationoritsusesforinternationalcommunication.With400millionnativespeakers,EnglishisthelargestoftheWesternlanguages.EnglishLexicologyWiththehelpofthefollowingfigure,tellinyourownwordsthehistoryoftheEnglishlanguageandexplainitsthreeperiods.TASK03TheOriginsofEnglishWordsEnglishLexicologyEnglishLexicologyGenerallyspeaking,thegreatsizeandmixedcharacteroftheEnglishvocabularyareattributedtothreecomponents:

nativewordsloanwordsneologismsMostofthenativewordshaveastrongAnglo-SaxoncharacterEnglishLexicology3.1Anglo-SaxonElementsWhentheAngles,SaxonsandJutescrossedtheChanneltoBritaininthe5thand6thcenturies,theybroughtwiththemamutuallyintelligiblesetofdialects,whichcametobethebasisofOldEnglish.55BCTheinvasionledbyJuliusCaesarAD43MostofBritaincameunderRomanoccupation;CeltsfledtoWalesandScotland.OriginalinhabitantsinBritain:CeltsOldEnglishSpeaksCelticAfterAD400CeltsresortedtoGermanicsoldierstodefendtheVikings;GermanictribescontrolledEngland.Angle-ishbecamethepredominantlanguage,fromwhichtoday’sEnglishisderived.EnglishLexicology3.1Anglo-SaxonElementsAslanguagechanged,manygrammaticalrules,forexample,thenouncasesystem,wereeroded.TillnowmostoftheoldEnglishwordsdiedoutasalargenumberofwordsfromFrenchandLatinwereborrowed.Thosekeptinusetoday,theirroleasthecorevocabularyinEnglishenjoysadisproportionatepositioninuse.Accordingtothelistofthemostfrequentitemsinthe100-million-wordBritishNationalCorpus,allthemostcommonlyoccurringwordshaveAnglo-Saxonorigins.Mostofthemare“four-letterwords”orshorter.EnglishLexicology3.1Anglo-SaxonElementsTop20wordsonthelist:the,be,of,and,a,in(preposition,asinintown),to(infinitive-maker,asintogo),have,it,to(preposition,asintotown),for(preposition,asinforhours),I,that(relativepronoun,asinthecarthatIsaw),you,he,on(preposition,asinontime),with(preposition,asinwithease),do(verb,asinIdo),at(preposition,asinattimes),by(preposition,asinbybus).

EnglishLexicology3.1Anglo-SaxonElementsOldEnglishwordsrepresentthemostcommonrootwordsinperhapsthemostbasicareasofhumanlife,e.g.descriptionofthehumanbody:hand,foot,arm,eye,ear,chin,hear,bone,back,beard,belly,body,breast,breech,chest,finger,hair,heart,hip,bosom,brain,head,heel,knee,mouth,nostril;date,monthandtime:month,morning,evening,midday,midnight,night,sun,spring,summer,Sunday,today,year,yesterday,day,time,winter;weather:cloudy,cold,cool,frost,heat,ice-cold,storm,warm,wind,windy,hail,snow;clothing:cloth,clothes,sock;transportation:keel,sea-boat,boat,board,ship;EnglishLexicology3.1Anglo-SaxonElementsone'sidentity:earl,father,goldsmith,husband,monk,mother,nephew,priest,queen,shoemaker,ward,widow,wife,alderman,king,knight,shepherd,sister,son,daughter;plantsandanimals:corn,cock,wolf,bear,bee,beetle,berry,bitch,boar,cat,chicken,cow,crow,fish,fox,hare,hawk,hawthorn,lobster,sheep,ox,roe,shellfish,shoat,sparrow,studhorse,worm,wort,adder,ant,ape,bird,calf,bull,clover,cod,cuttle,deer,fowl,gar,hart,hound,mare,moth,ram,whale,buck,beaver,beech.ThefollowingisalistofotherAnglo-Saxonwordsgroupedintoword-classes,e.g.commonnouns:acre,ale,alms,answer,anthem,apple,ark,arrow,ash,barn,bath,beacon,beat,bellows,belt,bench,bill,binder,bishop,bit,bite,bladder,blade,blast,blaze,bliss,blood,bloom,bolster,book,borough,bottom,box,brass,breadth,breath,bride,bridge,brother,brown,butter,burden,candle,canon,cap,care,chaff,chalk,cheese,child,church,clew,cliff,clothes……EnglishLexicology3.1Anglo-SaxonElementscommonadjectives:alive,all,almighty,any,bare,best,better,bitter,black,blind,blithe,bold,bridal,bright,broad,busy,callow,clean,crisp,dark,dead,deep,dim,dizzy,dreary,dumb,fair,fast,fat,free,full,further,good,green,half,hard,heavy,hoarse,high……commonadverbs:about,above,again,along,always,beneath,east,even,ever,far,gladly,here,hereafter,how,less,long,near,now,out,seldom,soon,then,there,thereof,thereto,though,thus,together,too,toward,up,west,where,yet;commonverbs:abide,allay,allow,answer,are,arise,ask,awaken,bake,bark,bathe,bear,become,befall,begin,behold,bell,bend,bequeath,beset,bid,bite,bleach,bless,blow,blush,borrow,break,breathe,breed,brew,bring,bruise,build,burn,burst,bury,buy,can,chew,choose,cleanse,climb,cling,clip,clothe,come,cough,crack,dive,do,drink,drive,earn,eat,fall,fasten,feed,feel,fight,find,flow,fly,follow,forgive……EnglishLexicology3.2LoanWords Onlyabout20percentofwordsareprobablydescendedfromOldEnglish.

Englishhasborrowedwordsfrommorethan350languagesaroundtheworld.ThemajorcontributorsincludeFrench,Latin,Greek,etc.EnglishLexicologyAnestimatednumberofover10,000FrenchwordswereadoptedduringtheMiddleEnglishperiodand75％ofthemarestillinusetoday.ModernEnglishkeepssuchatendencyofborrowingwordsfromFrench.Today30％oftheEnglishlexiconhaveFrenchorigin.3.2LoanWords:FrenchEnglishLexicologyAD1250Recordsshowthatabout900wordswereborrowedintoEnglishduringthisperiod.ManyofthemwerereflectionsofthecommunicationbetweenthelowerEnglishclassandtherulingFrenchnobles,e.g.baron,noble,dame,servant,messenger,fest,minstrel,juggler,largess.Otherborrowings:air,beast,beauty,color,dangerous,diet,feast,flower,jealous,journey,judge,liquor,oil,part,peace,soil,story,tender.AD1066NormanConquest3.2LoanWords:FrenchEnglishLexicologyAD1250AD1066NormanConquest3.2LoanWords:FrenchAfter1250,Englishwasgivenbackitsofficialstatus.→promoted,theborrowingofFrenchwordsEspeciallyintheareasofgovernmentalandadministrative

affairs,fashion,food,art,learning,medicineandsociallife.army,assembly,council,defense,empire,mayor,navy,parliament,record,soldier,state,statute,tax,science,medicine,number,figure,grammar,image,logic,music,pain,physician,poet,remedy,romance,study,surgeon,tragedy.EnglishLexicologyModernEnglishPeriod(Since1476)3.2LoanWords:FrenchInthisprocesstheoriginalsoundsoftheloanwordswerelikelyborrowedaswellastheirspellingformsInthe18thcentury:WordsaboutmilitaryandforeignaffairsandtheFrenchRevolution:brochure,bureau,canteen,corps,critique,depot,espionage,nuance,picnic,police,rouge.EnglishLexicologyModernEnglishPeriod(Since1476)3.2LoanWords:FrenchThe19thcentury:themostFrenchloanwordssincetheMiddleEnglishperiod.matinée,premier,attaché,chargéd'affaires,prestige,menu,chef,café,surveillance,liaison,deluxe,coupon,laissez-faire,restaurant,coupé,lingerie,chic,cigarette,finesherbes,impasse,foyer,suede,risqué,revue,décorandchauffeur.Sincethe20thcenturyE.g.,camouflage,fuselage,déjàvu,hautecouture,collage,courgetteandrotisserie.EnglishLexicology3.2LoanWords:LatinCommonLatinfeatures:-er/-orendings:arbiter,creditor-umsingular→-aplural:stadium→stadia-asingular→-aeplural:formula→formulae-ussingular→-iplural:fungus→fungiLatinateprefixes:ab-,af-,dis-,extra-,im-,inter-,multi-,op-,post-,pre-,re-,semi-,suf-,super-Latinatesuffixes:-able,-al,-ar,-ary,-cide,-ent,-er,-idle,-ic,-ify,-ile,-ism,-ive,-ize,-ment,-ous,-sion,-ure,-tion,-tude,-uleEnglishLexicology3.2LoanWords:Latin1.GermanicPeriodLatinateinfluencecandatebacktothetimesbeforeAnglo-SaxonsleftEurope.Areas:trade,householdcrafts,religionExamples:pear,turnip,kettle,cup,dish,oil,wall,street,mile,cheap,monger,pound,mint,wine,kitchen,cheese,cherry,butter,plum,pea,pitch,pipe,tile,church,bishop.EnglishLexicology3.2LoanWords:Latin3.MiddleEnglishPeriodAfterNormanConquest,LatinwordsborroweddirectlyintoEnglishandindirectlyviaFrench.Mostlyinwrittentexts,notpopularspokenuse.Directlyborrowedwords:abject,adjacent,allegory,conflagration,conspiracy,contempt,custody,distract,equivalent,frustrate,genius,gesture,history,homicide,immune,incarnate,include,incredible,incubus,incumbent,index,individual,infant,inferior,infinite,innumerable,intellect,interrogate,interrupt,juniper,legal,legitimate,limbo,lucrative,lunatic,magnify,malefactor,mechanical,mediator,minor,missal,moderate…Popularsuffixesfromthisperiod:-able,-ible,-ent,-al,-ous,-ive.EnglishLexicology3.2LoanWords:Latin4.ModernEnglishPeriodRenaissance:studyofancientGreekandRomanculturesledtotranslationofLatinliterature.Latinwasusedbyscientistsandwriters(16th–18th,e.g.FrancisBacon,IsaacNewton).Sofar,LatinhasstillbeenthemostconsistentsourceofEnglishborrowings.abdomen,acumen,advocate,agile,anatomy,angina,arbitrator,area,axis,benevolent,capsule,census,civil,compensate,complex,curriculum,decorum,dedicate,dexterity,discus,education,enterprise,esteem,excavate,executer,expensive,fictitious,focus,furuncle,gradual,habitual,insane,janitor,jurist,ignoramus,impetus,item,lens,malignity,meditate,minimum,momentum…EnglishLexicology3.2LoanWords:GreekExamplesviaLatin/French:atheism,atmosphere,chaos,dogma,economy,ecstasy,drama,irony,pneumonia,scheme,syllable.DirectborrowingsduringRenaissance(especiallyforterminology):hepatitis,neurology,phlebotomy.Otherdirectborrowings:asterisk,catastrophe,crypt,criterion,dialysis,lexicon,polyglot,rhythm,syllabus.ModernGreekborrowings:bouzouki,moussaka,ouzo,sirtaki,souvlaki.GreekLatinFrenchEnglish

EnglishLexicology3.2LoanWords:GreekFourTypesofGreekloanwordsinEnglishInflectionalendingretained,speltinLatinstyle:aegis,analysis,antithesis,automaton,charisma,cytokinesis,diagnosis,dogma,enigma,genesis,gnosis,hoipolloi,kerygma,lalophobia,magma,phenomenon,rhinoceros,rhododendron,synthesis,thesis.Latinending:brontosaurus,chrysanthemum,diplodocus,hippopotamus,pliohippus.Droppedoradaptedending:agnostic,agnosticism,alphabet,alphabetic,analytic,anthocyanin,astrobleme,automatic,biologist,blasphemy,charismatic,chemotherapy,chronobiology,cinematography,critic,criticism…EnglishLexicology3.2LoanWords:GreekFourTypesofGreekloanwordsinEnglishDroppedoradaptedending:…,dramatic,dramatist,electric,electronic,enigmatic,epistemic,gene,genetic,herpetology,narcolepsy,odyssey,oligarchy,patriarch,phenomenology,pterodactyl,sympathomimetic.Greekrootsandaffixes(mostcommon).Roots:-anthrop-,-chron-,-dem-,-morph-,-path-,-ped-,-philo-/-phil-,-phon-Prefixes:a-/an-,anti-/ant-,auto-,bio-/bi-,geo-,hyper-,micro-,mono-,neo-,pan-,thermo-/therm-Suffixes:-ism,-ist,-ize,-gram,-graph,-logue/-log,-logy,-meter/-metry,-oid,-phile,-phobe/-phobia,-phoneEnglishLexicologyDoyouknowthefollowing12Greekwords?1.Acme 2.acropolis 3.agora 4.anathema5.Anemia 6.ethos 7.dogma 8.eureka9.Genesis 10.phobia 11.plethora 12.kudosTASKEnglishLexicology3.2LoanWords:ScandinavianMostofScandinavianloanwordsinEnglishwereborrowedduringtheOldEnglishperiod.AfterScandinavianinvasions(AD790),earlyborrowings(relatedtoattacks/invasions):cnearr,dreng,batswegen,orrest,ran.Later,asinvaderssettledandintermarried,vocabularytransferincreased.Place‑nameinnorthern/easternEngland:-by:Carnaby,Ellerby,Rugby,Thirtleby-thorpe:Barleythorpe,Grimsthorpe,Hamthorpe,Hilderthorpe,LowClaythorpe,Fridathorpe-thwaite:Hampsthwaite,Hunderthwaite,HusthwaiteEnglishLexicology3.2LoanWords:ScandinavianDuetolinguisticcloseness,manywordswerequicklyborrowedandappearedinMiddleEnglishtexts(13thc.).anger,blight,by‑law,cake,clumsy,doze,egg,fellow,gear,hale,hit,husband,kick,kill,kilt,kindle,law,low,lump,rag,raise,scathe,scorch,score,scowl,scrape,scrub,seat,skill,skin,skirt,sky,they,them,their,thrall,thrust,ugly,want,wing.ModernEnglishborrowings(smallnumber):fjord,maelstrom,ombudsman,ski,slalom,smorgasbord.EnglishLexicology3.2LoanWords:ItalianRenaissancePeriodEnglishvisitorstoItalybroughtbackwordsrelatedtoeverydaylife,military,architecture,andarts(16th–17thc.).Examples:artichoke,gondola,squadron,stanza,fresco,bazaar,balcony,opera,vermicelli,rotunda.18th

Century–ItalianmusicandoperaspreadwidelyinEngland–EnglishcouldnotdiscussWesternmusicwithoutItaliantermsallegretto,aria,bravo,coda,concerto,duet,falsetto,impresario,lento,maestro,mezzo‑soprano,oratorio,pianissimo,soprano,tempo,violoncello.EnglishLexicology3.2LoanWords:CelticCeltic:languageofearliestinhabitantsontheBritishIsles.AfterAnglo‑Saxoninvasions,theCeltswerepushedintoWales,Cornwall,Scotland.Earlyborrowings:bald,down,glen,bard,cradle.AfterNormanConquest:bucket,crockery,noggin,gob,slogan,flannel,truant,gaol.ThereisonlyameageramountofCelticwordsinEnglishvocabulary,andmanyofthemarenamesofrivers,hills,andplaces:Avon,Exe,Esk,Thames,Wye,York,London.EnglishLexicology3.2LoanWords:GermanGermanandEnglisharecloselyrelated,butnumberofGermanwordsinEnglishissmall.GenerallyborrowedthroughAmericanEnglish.Wordskeptinsa