Refutation(驳论文写作).ppt

1、a,1,Refutation From The ENP Group 2014.5.27,a,2,Task scheduling,CEO,Speakers,Data Collectors,PPT makers,a,3,Defination,Steps,Ways of argumentation,Some examples and points,4,1,2,3,Contents,The model essay,5,a,4,A refutation is the act of proving something wrong by argument or evidence. The part of a

2、n argument in which a speaker or writer counters opposing points of view.,What is Refutation?,a,5,What is Refutation?,A refutation paper is referred to as an argument paper,Your refutation,You must fully understand their point of view,Its important to research your side of the issue and your critics

3、 well,a,6,Defination,Steps,Ways of argumentation,Some examples and points,4,1,2,3,Contents,The model essay,5,a,7,Steps of Refutation,Step 1,Step 2,Then put their arguments down one by one by disproving them or showing why they should not be believed.,First, very briefly bring up the main arguments t

4、hat your opponents have made or might make in their own favor,a,8,Steps of Refutation,Introductory paragraph,Body paragraph,Conclusion paragraph,Write an Introduction,What Can be Attacked,Tell a Strong Thesis Statement,Attack opposing arguments,How to end,How to write a Refutation,a,9,Provide necess

5、ary background information Why there is a controversy over it How different opinions came about Who is on what side What the claims of each side are Why anyone cares You should also define words that your readers dont know, or words that usually general, but you use in a specific way, or words that

6、are easily misunderstood in meaning.,How to Write an Introduction,a,10,2. Be charming You can win the attention and good will of your readers by telling an interesting story, quoting a well-phrased comment on the issue. You should avoid pomposity(自负) and show concern for your readers. You should pre

7、sent yourself as fair-minded and good-natured.,How to Write an Introduction,a,11,3. A strong thesis statement expresses one main idea. Companies need to exploit the marketing potential of the Internet, and Web pages can provide both advertising and customer support.(weak) Because the Internet is fil

8、led with tremendous marketing potential, companies should exploit this potential by using Web pages that offer both advertising and customer support.(strong),How to Tell a Strong Thesis Statement,a,12,4. A strong thesis statement is specific. World hunger has many causes and effects.(weak) Hunger pe

9、rsists in Glandelinia because jobs are scarce and farming in the infertile soil is rarely profitable.(strong),How to Tell a Strong Thesis Statement,a,13,1. Unclear: Contradicts itself Full of holes Leaves too many questions unanswered Uses too many obscure or undefined words Too general,What Opposin

10、g Arguments Can be Attacked,a,14,2. Incredible: Strains the readers suspension of disbelief Offers no reasons to believe the opponents statements Gives no solid sources for unusual claims Relies on questionable or outdated or biased sources Relies on personal stories instead of objective evidence Re

11、lies on evidence that is missing or cannot be reproduced,What Opposing Arguments Can be Attacked,a,15,3. Impossible: Is not anchored in a real world Is a proposal that is not possible to accomplish Strains the readers imagination Silly or preposterous Ignores the law of nature Turns the world on its

12、 head Requires a miracle or an act of God to come true Is a million-to-one long shot,What Opposing Arguments Can be Attacked,a,16,4. illogical: Does not stand up to the test of logic Is not an intelligent analysis Jumps to conclusions Induces gross logical fallacies Is ignorant, uneducated, childish

13、, infantile Lacks any evidence or proof for statements Closed-minded Conveniently ignores the facts,What Opposing Arguments Can be Attacked,a,17,5. Unfitting: Is not right or moral in a civilized society Evil-minded, unworthy of decent people Cultural unacceptable, disagrees with your own faith or m

14、orals Inhumane Self-centered,What Opposing Arguments Can be Attacked,a,18,6. Unprofitable: Makes no sense financially or money-wise Wasteful Costs more than it saves Results in poverty and bankruptcy（破产） or starvation,What Opposing Arguments Can be Attacked,a,19,1. Examples: examples not only make a

15、 generalization clearer, they are also likely to make it more convincing. 2. Facts: a fact is a statement accepted as true. It can be from newspapers, almanmacs（年鉴）,encyclopedias（百科全书） and research studies. 3. Authoritative or expert opinions: to cite experts on the subject who agree with your point

16、s of view.,How to attack opposing arguments,a,20,4. Statistical findings: data showing how much, how many, or how oftencan be convincing. 5. Personal experiences or observations: Sometimes they can deliver an argumentative message more forcefully than any other kind of evidence. Personal experience

17、usually reinforces but does not replace other kinds of evidences.,How to attack opposing arguments,a,21,Restart your thesis in different ways Look into the future Make fun of your opponents Summarize your major points if your paper is long,How to end,a,22,Defination,Steps,Ways of argumentation,Some

18、examples and points,4,1,2,3,Contents,The model essay,5,a,23,Way of argumentation,Refutation through Logic,Way of argumentation,Refutation through Evidence,Refutation through Minimization,a,24,An argument stands on legs of evidence. If there is no support or clear justifications for an argument, it c

19、annot be sound or valid. A writer can refute an opposing argument by successfully countering it through evidence, whether its evidence that conclusively disproves it by its findings or because its more recent/credible evidence.,Refutation through Evidence,a,25,One popular debate right now centers on

20、 the existence of global warming, as we saw in the cartoon. If a proponent for the existence of global warming cited an article about tsunamis from 2005, his/her opponent could come back with a more recent article (say, from 2010) demonstrating scientific evidence that disproved the correlation betw

21、een tsunamis and global warming. This would be an instance of refutation through evidence.,Refutation through Evidence (Example),a,26,Refutation through logic is perhaps the strongest and most persuasive form because it essentially deconstructs the opponents argument and proves it to be a logical fa

22、llacy. This can be difficult to do successfully because most skilled writers and rhetoricians will have already examined the validity of their arguments before presenting them. However, it is possible, so lets check out an example of this.,Refutation through Logic,a,27,One common logical fallacy is

23、to assume causation when there is only correlation. So, if I were to argue that enforcing all students to wear uniforms causes a suppression of individual expression, my opponent could respond that while there may be a correlation between uniforms and suppressed individuality, it is not a given (and

24、 therefore not a direct cause/effect relationship). In other words, there may be other variables to take into account before I can assume that uniforms cause this effect.,Refutation through Logic (Example),a,28,Refutation through minimization occurs when a writer shows that one of the best opposing

25、arguments is not as central to the issue as the opposition thought; the writer might show the argument as something that is peripheral and not as eminent to the topic as his/her argument.,Refutation through Minimization,a,29,An example of this would be if I were arguing that all freshman students ac

26、ross campus universities nation-wide should participate in a health program to decrease the chances of gaining the extra weight of the Freshman 15. If my opposition argued that the Freshman 15 does not occur as frequently now because more students are non-traditional students and living at home, I m

27、ight then argue that this is inconsequential considering our obesity problem in the United States. Surely any freshman would benefit from a health program, whether he or she was living on campus or not.,Refutation through Minimization (Example),a,30,Defination,Steps,Ways of argumentation,Some exampl

28、es and points,4,1,2,3,Contents,The model essay,5,a,31,Pay attention to the points,调查类错误,考虑不全面错误,充分条件类错误,因果关系类错误,范围变化类错误,时间外推类错误,论据含糊,错误类比,非此即彼类错误,All kinds of logical error,a,32,Some examples,攻击“概念错误”,攻击个体推整体,攻击整体推个体,The argument resets on the assumption that (个体案例) typify nationwide (整体情况). If this

29、 is not the case, then it is entirely possible that (在另一个地方， 上述个案的结果不会发生相同的情况). Thus, lacking more marketing information about nationwide, it is difficult to assess the merit of the memos recommendation.,A threshold problem involves the definition of A. The arguer fails to define this critical term.

30、 If A is defined as B, then C, is irrelevant to In short, without a clear definition of A, it is impossible to assess the strength of the argument.,One problem with the argument is that it assumes that the nationwide (characteristics of a group apply to every member of that group) statistics about a

31、pplies equally to 个体成员,. Yet this might not be the case, for a variety of possible reasons. Perhaps ; or perhaps . Without ruling out such possibilities, the author cannot justifiably conclude that,a,33,批评驳斥句型,Directly Refute,Critical Analysis,本节句型用于对某一观点进行分析，指出其错误性和荒谬性，并予以批评。,本节句型首先引出文章要驳斥的观点，或作者不赞

32、成的意见，然后对这些观点进行直接驳斥。,a,34,Although everyone believes that individuals have the right to risk their own lives. I doubt whether the argument bears much analysis. Few of us, for example, could defend the right to smoke in restaurants, supermarkets, hospitals and other public places when the health of no

33、nsmokers is endangered. Besides, since most of the cost of the injury of an individual is borne by all society, why should those who wear seat belts have to pay higher insurance bills because others wont?,虽然每个人认为他有权冒着自己生命的危险去干某事，但我不认为这个观点经得起推敲。例如，当不吸烟者的健康受到危害时，我们很难为自己在饭馆、超市、医院以及其他公共场所吸烟 的权利辩护。而且由于一个

34、人出了事故，其费用的大多数是由整个社会来负担的，为什么驾车带上保险带的人因为别人不带而要付 出高昂的保险费呢？,批评驳斥句型（直接驳斥）,a,35,Although the common belief is that high technology will play a critical role in solving energy and food shortages and that answers to environmental difficulties will come from further advances in the same technologies that may

35、 have helped cause the problems, more and more evidence shows that purely technological solution alone is not the whole answer. An increasing number of scientists argue openly for new directions in research and begin to pay attention to such fields as sociology, psychology and even philosophy.,虽然大多数

36、人认为高科技在解决能源和粮食短缺方面起着决定性的作用，而且解决环境问题的答案在于进一步发展这个曾造成了这些问题的技术，但是越来越多的证据表明仅从技术方面考虑，并不能解决问题。越来越多的科学家要求从新的方向来研究并开始把注意力放在社会学，心理学，甚至哲学等领域。,批评驳斥句型（直接驳斥）,a,36,To assume that the small, but happy nuclear family pattern is emerging is wide of the mark. For it scarcely reflects the realities of modern family lif

37、e. Climbing divorce rate, the rise of the single-parent household, the impact of remarriages, the increase in one-paycheck families and the stresses of urban life are transforming the family and challenging our traditional view of family life.,说幸福的三口之家的核心家庭结构正在形成并不正确，因为这个观点并没有反映出现代家庭生活的真实情况。离婚率的上升，单

38、亲家庭的增多，再婚的影响，夫妻一方下岗人数的增加以及城市生活的压力等等，这一切正在改变家庭的概念，向我们对家庭生活的传统看法挑战。,批评驳斥句型（批评分析）,a,37,Now, if you are to punish a man, you must injure him. If you are to reform him, you must improve him. And men are not improved by injuries. To propose to punish and reform people by the same operation is exactly as i

39、f you were to stand a man suffering from pneumonia in the snow all night, attempting to combine punitive and curative treatment.,如果你的意图是惩罚一个人，你就一定要伤害他。如果你的意图是改造他，你就一定要使他变好。而人们是不会因为受种种伤害而变好的。建议用同一做法既惩罚人又改造人，恰恰就像让患了肺炎的人一整夜站在雪地上，试图采用惩罚与医治相结合的疗法。,批评驳斥句型（批评分析）,a,38,If one allows the tobacco industry to s

40、pend staggering sums on advertising in order to enlist its financial support, it is no good being disturbed by the statistics that countless valuable lives are lost each year and by the enormus amounts spent on efforts to cure people from various diseases caused by smoking.,如果允许烟草公司把大笔的钱花在广告上，以得到它们的

41、资助，那么对每年死去的无数宝贵的生命，对花在医治抽烟所造成的各种疾病上的巨大开支就用不着感到震惊了。,批评驳斥句型（批评分析）,a,39,Defination,Steps,Ways of argumentation,Some examples and points,4,1,2,3,Contents,The model essay,5,a,40,The model essay,In any academic area or professional field, it is just as important to recognize the limits of our knowledge an

42、d understanding as it is to acquire new facts and information.“ Personally, I hold that knowledge knows no bounds, therefore, on realizing this awkwardness, the only thing man should do is to absorb as much new knowledge as he can for the sake of not lagging behind the pacing steps of our world. Doe

43、s recognizing the limits of our knowledge and understanding serve us equally well as acquiring new facts and information, as the speaker asserts?注意这一句经典的反问式开头了，这是最引人注目的。While our everyday experience might lend credence to this assertion, further reflection reveals its fundamental inconsistency with

44、our Western view of how we acquire knowledge. Nevertheless, a careful and thoughtful definition of knowledge can serve to reconcile the two.,a,41,The model essay,On the one hand, the speakers assertion accords with the everyday experience of working professionals. For example, the sort of “book ”kno

45、wledge that medical, law, and business students acquire, no matter how extensive, is of little use unless these students also learn to accept the uncertainties and risks inherent in professional practice and in the business world. Any successful doctor, lawyer, or entrepreneur would undoubtedly agre

46、e that new precedents and challenges in their fields compel them to acknowledge the limitations of their knowledge, and that learning to accommodate these limitations is just as important in their professional success as knowledge itself. 在驳论的第一段，作者就举例子说明知识的有限性并不一定意味着各行各业的人就必须汲取其他方面的知识，恰恰相反，对于医生、律师或

47、企业家来说意识到了自我知识的有限，并且寻求方法去适应调和这一有限性反而是必要的。,a,42,The model essay,Moreover, the additional knowledge we gain by collecting more information often diminishes-sometimes to the point where marginal gains turn to marginal losses. Consider, for instance, the collection of financial- investment information. N

48、o amount of knowledge can eliminate the uncertainty and risk inherent in financial investing. Also, information overload can result in confusion, which in turn can diminish ones ability to assimilate information and apply it usefully. Thus, by recognizing the limits of their knowledge, and by accoun

49、ting for those limits when making decisions, investment advisors can more effectively serve their clients. 作者进一步通过金融投资业信息的赘余的危害性来驳斥原文的观点。,a,43,The model essay,On the other hand, the speakers assertion seems self-contradictory, for how can we know the limits of our knowledge until weve thoroughly tested those limits through exhaustive empirical observation-that is, by acquiring facts and information. For example, it would be tempting to concede that we can never understand the basic forces that govern all matter in the universe. Yet due to inc