英语词汇学课件

1、WANG YongAn Introduction to Modern English Lexicology 现代英语词汇学概论,2,INTRODUCTION,About the lexicology,3,1.1 Lexicology,Word form (sound, syntax) meaning Vocabulary ?,4,1.2 Roles of words in life,5,6,7,1.3 Aspects of the word,Morphological structure, formation,Meaning, relation and others,

2、Fixed usage, types and so on,Language comparison English is a heavy borrower.,48,By level of usage, words can be classified into Common words Literary words Colloquial words Slang words The chief reason for the formation and use of slang expressions is to secure freshness and novelty. Technical word

3、s Since language is constantly changing, the classification of words by level of usage is not absolute.,49,By notion, words can be classified into Function words Although they do not have much of their lexical meaning, they have a special kind of meaning-grammatical meaning. They act as grammatical

4、signals to show the connection between content words. Function words belong to a relatively small and permanent set of words, in comparison to content words. The nine most frequently used are and, be, have, it, of, the, to, will, you. Functional words possesses a characteristic of basic word stock,

5、i.e. stability Content words Content words have independent lexical meanings. Content words belong to an open list.,50,SUMMARY,Word Vocabulary Rapid development of English words Three historical periods Three main sources of new words() Modes of English words development Classification of English wo

6、rds by origin Characteristics of basic word stock by level of usage by notion,51,MORPHOLOGICAL STRUCTURE OF ENGLISH WORDS,Chapter Two,52,Content,2.1 Morphemes 2.2 Allomorphs 2.3 Classifications of morphemes,53,Morphological structure of the word The internal structural of words and rule by which wor

7、ds are formed. A word is the smallest unit of a language that stands alone to communicate meaning. Structurally, however, a word is not the smallest unit because many words can be separated into smaller meaningful units. Words are composed of morphemes.,54,2.1 Morphemes,The morpheme is the smallest

8、meaningful linguistic unit of language, not divisible or analyzable into smaller forms. The morpheme denotes the smallest units or the minimum distinctive feature of some class of things. A morpheme is also two-facet language unit which possesses both sound and meaning. One morpheme: nation Two morp

9、hemes: nation-al Three morphemes: nation-al-ize Four morphemes: de-nation-al-ize,55,An allomorph (词/语素变体) any of the variant forms of a morpheme as conditioned by position or adjoining sounds. Different forms of the same morpheme. (An allomorph is one of two or more complementary morphs which manife

10、st a morpheme in its different phonological or morphological environments.) caps, classes : -s (plural) -ion, -tion, -ation, -sion positional allomorphs of the same suffix 动词过去时态变化 ed, -ied,2.2 Allomorphs,56,2.3 Classifications of morphemes,In general, there are two main types of classification of m

11、orphemes Free morphemes and bound morphemes Roots and affixes,57,2.3.1 Free morphemes and bound morphemes,Free morphemes A free morpheme is one that can be uttered alone with meaning. Free morphemes have complete meanings in themselves and can be used as free grammatical units in sentences, i.e., fr

12、ee roots(自由词根). A free morpheme is a word, in traditional sense. E.g.: earth, wind, boy, bite, etc,58,Bound morphemes A bound morpheme cannot stand by itself as a complete utterance; it must appear with at least one other morpheme, free or bound. Inflectional elements and affixes are bound morphemes

13、. they have attached meaning (un-kind, hope-ful) or grammatical meaning (cat-s, slow-ly, walk-ing, call-ed). They are also called grammatical morphemes.,59,2.3.2 Roots and affixes,Roots, i.e., root morphemes A root is the basic unchangeable part of a word, and it conveys the main lexical meaning of

14、the word. work, workable, worker, worked, and working Roots are either free or bound Free roots: In English, many roots are free morphemes, such as boy, walk etc. Free roots, just like simple words, belong to the basic word-stock. Bound roots: Quite a number of roots derived from foreign sources, es

15、pecially from Greek and Latin, belong to the class of bound morphemes, such as tain in words like contain, detain,60,A root, whether it is free or bound, generally carries the main component of meaning in a word. E.g.: revive vital vitamin vivacious vivid each consists of the Latin root vit- or viv-

16、, meaning “life” or “to live.” E.g.: contradict, predict, dictate, diction, dictionary dict- conveys the meaning of say or speak- A knowledge of roots can help one to analyze and understand many words almost on sight. Knowing the meaning of these roots can help clarify the meaning of many English wo

17、rds.,61,Affixes,Affix is a “collective term for type of formative that can be used only when added to another morpheme.” Affixes, therefore, are considered bound morphemes. Affixes are forms that are attached to words or word elements to modify meaning or function. According to the functions of affi

18、xes , affixes may be divided into inflectional(曲折词缀) and derivational (派生词缀) types.,62,Inflectional affixes Affixes attached to the end of words to indicate grammatical relationships are inflectional, thus known as inflectional morphemes. For example: cats, walked, walking, Johns book An inflectiona

19、l affix serves to express such meanings as plurality, tense, and the comparative or superlative degree. It does not form a new word with new lexical meaning when it is added to another word.,63,Derivational affixes Affixes added to other morphemes to create new words. They can be further divided int

20、o prefixes and suffixes. Prefixes(前缀) Suffixes(后缀) Derivational affixes have not only independent lexical meaning but also affective meaning.,64,English words can be classified on the morphemic level: (1) simple words: a single morpheme (2) derived words: result of a derivational process, consisting

21、 of a free morpheme and one (or more than one) bound morpheme, e.g., fruitless (3) compound words: those which are composed of two or more free morphemes,Diagram of morphemes,65,SUMMARY,Morpheme Allomorphs Classification of morphemes Free or bound Root or affixes Classification of words on the morph

22、emic level Research question: 汉语中的语素/词素？词缀?,66,Review: about the morpheme Give the English or Chinese for the following and explain.,blog flash geek wiki witkey,博客 闪客 奇客/极客 维客 威客,hacker digg walker podcasting gawker,黑客/骇客 掘客 沃客 播客 搞客,67,WORD-FORMATION,Chapter Three it may also be defined as “a form

23、to which a rule of word-formation is applied.” denationalized,73,Some books (b) hyphenated: air-conditioning; (c) open: air force, air raid.,75,Compounds are classified according to parts of speech of the compounds, i.e. noun compounds, adjective compounds and verb compounds, which are then subdivid

24、ed by the syntactic relation of the compounding elements The meaning of a compound is not always the sum of the meanings of its parts. E.g.: Home + work homework; Pick + pocket pickpocket Hot line 热线：noun compounds, adj-noun, meaning?,76,A few noteworthy points about compound words: 1) When the two

25、words are in the same grammatical category, the compound will be in this category. （当构成复合词的两个词词性一样时，则构成的新词也是该词性。） noun+noun noun e.g. handbook, notebook, night-school, life-story, adj+adjadj e.g. bittersweet, light-blue, blue- black, icy-cold,77,2) When the two words are in different grammatical cat

26、egory, the compound will be the same as the second word. （当构成复合词的两个词词性不一样时，构成的新词与后者相同. ） verb+nounnoun. e.g. pickpocket, washboard, deadline, blackboard noun+adjadj. e.g. ice-cool, knee-deep, sea-sick exception:带有介词时，词性常与非介词部分一致。 e.g. undertake, inactive, uplift,78,3) Compounds have different stress

27、 patterns from the uncompounded word sequence.（复合词与非复合词的重音位置不同，复合词总在前面） e.g. redcoat, greenhouse (c.f. red coat, green house), blackboard, notebook, classroom, homework, workbook, pencil-box 4) The meaning of a compound is not always the sum of the meanings of its parts.（复合词的意思不全是两个词的合成意思，不能总望文生义） e

28、.g. a Red coat, a bigwig, a highbrow, a turn-coat, a blackbird, a black-sheep, cocktail, black horse, black tea, green-eyed, green- hand , etc.,79,Derivation Derivation or affixation is a process of forming new words by the addition of a word element, such as a prefix, suffix or combining form, to a

29、n already existing word. Derivation (affixation) is subdivided into prefixation and suffixation. Prefixes modify the lexical meaning of the base including: negative, reversative, pejorative, etc. Suffixes usually changing the word-class of the base noun-noun suffixes, adjective-noun suffixes, etc.,8

30、0,Conversion: Conversion is a word-formation process whereby a word of certain word-class is shifted into a word of another word-class without the addition of an affix. e.g.: water the flower, Other terms for conversion are “functional shift” and “derivation by zero suffix.” Conversion as a result o

31、f the almost entire loss of inflection (屈折变化) in modern English. Many types of conversion: noun-verb conversion, verb-noun conversion, adj-verb conversion, etc. The converted words are new not in form but in function. By functional shift, an old noun may come to be a new verb.,81,The most widely use

32、d conversion in English is that between nouns and verbs, e.g., n. v.: elbow, milk, skin, hammer, nurse, e-mail, dog, duck, peacock, wolf, fox, v. n.: to doubt, to attempt, to visit, to try, to walk. adj./adv. v.: dry, free, better, down, hollow. adj. n.: native, short, green, poor, innocent.,82,Clip

33、ping(缩略) The process of clipping involves the deletion of one or more syllables from a word (usually a noun), which is also available in its full form. Back-clippings: ad(vertisement), exam(ination), Fore-clippings: (ham)burger, (omni)bus Fore-and-aft clippings: (in)flu(enza), (de)tec(tive) Phrase c

34、lippings: pop (=popular music or record),83,Acronymy: Initialisms and Acronyms （首字母及首字母缩略词） Initialisms Initialism is a type of shortening, using the first letters of words to form a proper name, a technical term, or a phrase; an intialism is pronounced letter by letter. BBC VOA UN UFO WTO,84,CPU DI

35、Y CEO IT AI SOS IDD GMT VIP P.S. a.m. p.m.,central processing unit Do it yourself Chief Executive Officer Information technology artificial intelligence Save our ship international direct dial Greenwich Mean Time very important person postscript ante meridiem post meridiem,Write out in full the foll

36、owing initialisms,85,MBA VIP family China,Master of Business Administration married but available Very Important Person Very Interesting Pig Father and mother I love you Come here, I need affection,New interpretations for initialisms,BMW ICBC ABC Japan,86,Acronyms Acronyms are the words formed from

37、the initial letters of the name of an organization or a scientific term, etc. Acronyms differ from initialisms in that they are pronounced as words rather than sequences of letters. NATO=the North Atlantic Treaty Organization is pronounced /neitu/ TOEFL (Test of Eng. as a Foreign Language),87,Blendi

38、ng （紧缩词；二合一词；拼缀词） A blending is a combination of parts of two words to form a third word which contains some of the meaning of each part. Blending is a process of both compounding and abbreviation. smog (smoke+ fog) motel (motor+ hotel) Chinglish brunch hi-tech medicare syntagmatic; etc.,88,The freq

39、uent use of blends by newspapers and magazines, the coinage of blends for the names of new inventions, and the close relationship of some blends to daily life have contributed to the popularization of this type of word-formation, but only a few have established themselves in the language. Most are s

40、hort-lived novelties.,89,Back-formation （逆向构词法） a term used to refer to a type of word-formation by which a shorter word is coined by the deletion of a supposed affix from a longer form already present in the language. typewriter typewrite editor edit enthuse enthusiasm televise television,90,Words

41、from Proper Names (neologism) New words can be created to denote new objects or ideas. This way of formation is also called “new coinage”, i.e., invention or coinage, neologism （新造词） They come from all sources, from names of scientists, politicians and statesmen to trade marks, and place names. koda

42、k 柯达, zerox 静电复印机 hamburger,香港脚,91,Reduplication a minor type of word-formation by which a compound word is created by the repetition (1) of one word like go-go; (2) of two almost identical words with a change in the vowels such as pingpong; (3) of two almost identical words with a change in the ini

43、tial consonants, as in willy-nilly. so-so 一点点 zigzag bye-bye 冷冰冰 dilly-dally 天天 人人 蹦蹦跳 hotch potch 来来 往往 点点 滴滴,92,Neoclassical Formation Neoclassical formation denotes the process by which words are formed from elements derived from Latin and Greek (as in telephone),93,Miscellaneous Genuine coinage

44、is rare Some new words are coined by analogy（类推或仿词）and contrast（对比）, e.g. birds eye-view, fishs eye-view, worms eye-view; sunrise, moonrise; spaceman, moon-man, etc.,94,类推（ analogy ）是英语构词法之一，其特点是仿造现有的词类创造出对应词或近似词。汉语中叫仿词。 More examples of analogy: health-crisis, white list （准予上演的短剧名单）, gray-list (非明文

45、查禁但仍属不法的人和物），without-it (过时的）gray-collar workers (灰领工人，服务行业职工) , visual pollution, spiritual pollution, culture pollution. 汉语中： 牡丹是“国花”，这就可算是“国骂”了（鲁迅） 反正他挣钱不多，花匠也罢，草匠也罢。（老舍） 午一时，人客到齐，新楼旧铺，济济两堂,95,Examples of contrast: baby bust, baby boom; nightmare, day-mare; hot-war, cold war; hot line, cold line;

46、 brain drain (人才外流), brain gain (人才流入); flash back, flash forward. 汉语中：后来这终于从深闺传到浅闺里去了。（鲁迅） 好逸恶劳”是一种低下的感情，我们应该把它 翻转过来，“好劳恶逸”。 （陶铸） 有人说这是阴谋，我们说这是阳谋。（毛泽东） .无论你所做的事是文化还是武化. （鲁迅） 有人天天喊大众化，却仍然是小众化。,96,SUMMARY,Word-formation: rules, types ?,97,Suggested research topics: 英汉构词法对比研究 Compound, acronym, conver

47、sion, blending etc. 英（汉）复合词、缩略词、转类词、拼缀词等 The characteristics in from (sound, spelling) The process, mode or mechanism of word-formation (构词法/机制、模式或规律) Meaning: 1) how the meaning arises? 2) connection between the form and its meaning? Use of the word-formation in foreign language teaching there is n

48、o intrinsic relation between the sound-symbol and its sense/meaning. Conventionality: the arbitrariness between a sound and its meaning. Most words in any human language are conventional. e.g. English house French mansion Chinese fang zi Russian dom Spanish casa,106,Motivation,Motivation: the connec

49、tion between word-symbol and its sense The great majority of English words are non-motivated, since they are conventional, arbitrary symbols. However, there is a small group of words that can be described as motivated, that is, a direct connection between the symbol and its sense can be readily obse

50、rved. 词的理据（motivation）指的是事物和现象获得名称的依据，说明词义与事物或现象的命名之间的关系。,107,Motivation can arise in three major ways Phonetic motivation Morphological motivation Semantic motivation,108,Phonetic motivation Words motivated phonetically are called echoic words or onomatopoeic words, whose pronunciation suggests the

51、 meaning. They show a close relation of sound to sense, whereas non-echoic words do not show any such relationship. bow-wow or woof-woof , miaow , baa-baa moo , roar, coo, hiss, hum , quack; 阿嚏！ 布谷！boom, crack, clang , clash, bang, rumble,109,morphological motivation When a word is morphologically m

52、otivated, there is a direct connection between the form of the word and its meaning. e.g. anticancer, kilogram, modernize. Compound words may be morphologically motivated, too. e.g. good-looking, headache, daydream,110,Semantic motivation Motivation is based on semantic factors. It is a kind of ment

53、al association. e.g. stony heart - comparing the heart with a stone the leg of a table - comparing the tables leg with one of the lower limbs of a human being. The figurative meaning can be readily understood by those who know the literal meaning: walk-in patient 门诊病人 wage ceiling 最高工资限额 cradle-to-g

54、rave protection 一生的保护,111,3. Types of word meaning,Conceptual meaning (denotative meaning),Associative Meaning,Social / stylistic meaning,Collocative meaning,Affective meaning,Connotative meaning,Grammatical Meaning,Lexical Meaning,Word Meaning,112,Grammatical meaning,Grammatical meaning(语法意义)refers

55、 to that part of meaning of the word which indicates grammatical concept or relationships such as the word class, singular and plural forms of nouns, tense meaning of verbs and their inflectional forms (forget, forgets, forgot, forgotten, forgetting). Grammatical meaning of a word become important o

56、nly when it is used in actual context. e.g.,113,The dog is chasing a cat. Different words may have the same grammatical meaning: tables, men, oxen, potatoes (having the same plural meaning) The same word may have different grammatical meanings: forget, forgets, forgot, forgotten, forgetting,114,Lexi

57、cal meaning,Lexical meaning(词汇意义) is the meaning of an isolated word in a dictionary. This component of meaning is identical in all the forms of the word. E.g. go, goes, went, gone, going possess different grammatical meaning. But they have the same lexical meaning expressing the process of movement

58、. Lexical meaning itself has two components: conceptual (denotative) meaning and associative meaning.,115,Conceptual meaning,Conceptual meaning(概念意义) (also known as denotative meaning) is the meaning given in the dictionary and forms the core of word meaning. Conceptual meaning forms the basis for c

59、ommunication as the same word has the same conceptual meaning to all the speakers of the same language. Sun: a heavenly body which gives off light, heat,and energy Mother: a female parent,116,Associative meaning,Associative meaning(关联意义) is the secondary meaning supplemented to the conceptual meaning. It differs from the conceptual meaning in that it is open-ended and indeterminate(开放性和不确定性）. It is influ