英语写作之Paragraph

1、Part Four The Paragraph,Contents of This Part,I. Criteria of an effective paragraph II. Steps in writing a paragraph III. Ways of developing paragraphs,What is a paragraph?,A paragraph is a unit of thought. Paragraphs vary in length.,Criteria of an Effective Paragraph,unified coherent well developed

2、,Unity,Coherence,Transition / Development,Unity,A paragraph is a component part of an essay. Each paragraph has only one theme, so what is written should be closely related to the theme. The central theme is usually summarized in the topic sentence. Place of topic sentence: beginning, middle, end, i

3、mplied.,Please identify the topic sentence in each paragraph,Sample 1 Californians and New Englanders are both American. They speak the same language and abide by the same laws. However, they are very different in their ways of life. Mobility has made a great impression on the culture of Californian

4、s, lack of mobility is the mark of the customs and morality of New Englanders. Sample 2 Sample 3,Beginning,End,Implied,Middle,How to write a good topic sentence?,1. A topic sentence should be neither too general nor too specific. If it is too general, the reader cannot tell exactly what the paragrap

5、h is going to discuss. If it is too specific, the writer may not have anything left to write about in the rest of the paragraph.,主题句既不能太笼统，也不能太详细。 前者会使要讨论的内容不明确，后者会影响开展下文。,Example: American food is tasteless and greasy(油腻的) because Americans use too many canned, frozen and prepackaged foods and beca

6、use they fry everything in oil or butter. American food is terrible. American food is tasteless and greasy.,Too specific,Good,Too general,2. Do not involve too many related ideas in your topic sentence; if you do, your paragraph will not be unified.,主题句中不应包含过多的意思，以免影响段落的统一性。,San Francisco is famous

7、for its temperate climate, its many tourist attractions and its cosmopolitan(世界性的) atmosphere.,San Francisco is famous for its temperate climate / many tourist attractions / cosmopolitan atmosphere.,Too many ideas,Good,Homework,Task 3 Supply a topic sentence for each paragraph.,Coherence,The sentenc

8、es in a paragraph should be arranged in a clear, logical order. A paragraph is coherent when each sentence in it naturally leads to the next sentence in explaining and developing the central idea. Sample 4,Transition,Good transitions should be used to make one sentence run smoothly to another Ways o

9、f transition:,Transition,Ways of transition: using parallel structures repeating words or word groups using pronouns to refer to nouns in preceding sentences being consistent in the person and number of nouns and pronouns, and the tense of verbs using transitional expressions Details on Page 68,Tran

10、sitional words,Addition: also, again, as well as, besides, coupled with, furthermore, in addition, likewise, moreover, coupled with, together with Consequence: accordingly, as a result, consequently, for this reason, for this purpose, hence, otherwise, so then, subsequently, therefore, thus, wherefo

11、re Generalizing: as a rule, as usual, for the most part, generally, generally speaking, ordinarily, usually,Exemplifying: for example, for instance, such as, markedly, namely, including, for one thing, illustrated with, in this case Emphasis: above all, chiefly, especially, specifically, with attent

12、ion to, particularly, in particular Direction: here, there, over there, beyond, nearly, opposite, under, above, to the left, to the right, in the distance,Exception: aside from, besides, except, except for, excluding, exclusive of, other than, outside of Restatement: in essence, in other words, name

13、ly, that is, that is to say, in short, in brief, to put it differently Contrast and Comparison: comparatively, identically, likewise, similarly, in contrast, conversely, instead, on one hand, on the other hand, on the contrary, rather, yet, but, however, still, nevertheless,Sequence: at first, first

14、 of all, to begin with, in the first place, at the same time, for now, for the time being, the next step, in turn, later on, meanwhile, next, then, soon, the meantime, later, while, earlier, simultaneously, afterward, finally Summarizing: all in all, all things considered, briefly speaking, by and l

15、arge, in any case, in any event, in brief, in conclusion, on the whole, in short, in summary, in the final analysis, in the long run, to sum up, to summarize,Steps in Writing a Paragraph,Step 1: Give a topic sentence (Think of the theme or main idea, and express it in a complete sentence) Step 2: Th

16、ink of the details or examples or facts that may be used to support or explain the main idea. Step 3: Work out an outline to arrange the details or examples or facts in logical order.,Three main parts of a paragraph,GO=Topic Sentence Continue=Supporting Sentence Stop=Concluding Sentence,What kind of

17、 health problems does cigarette smoking cause？,We all know that cigarette smoking is a dangerous habit because it causes health problemsDoctors say it can be a direct cause of cancer of the lungs and throat and can also contribute to cancer of other organs In addition， it can bring about other healt

18、h problems such as heart and lung diseases It is clearly identified as one of the chief causes of death in our society,My mother has passed along to me certain rules for getting along with others. Dont argue with parents; they will think you dont love them. Dont argue with children; they will think

19、themselves victimized. Dont argue with spouses; they will think you are a tiresome mate. Dont argue with strangers; they will think you are not friendly. My mothers rules, in fact, can be summed up in two words: Dont argue.,What is the best topic sentence?,1. Mexico is an interesting country. 2. His

20、 many reforms made Mexico a fairer, more modern society. 3. Benito (1806-1872) is a national hero in Mexico.,Function of a paragraph 主题（a topic）作者的观点（an opinion or statement） The benefits of participating in sports are numerous. My favorite program is “Friend”. I enjoy the programs about real people

21、 and real experience.,The two purposes of a topic sentence: 1. to state the topic, to give the main idea2. to grab the readers attention so the reader wants to go on People view money differently. Some people consider money the root of all evil.,Features of the topic sentence,1. it shapes the entire

22、 paragraph by defining its contents 2. it establishes the paragraphs organization3. it has many forms,Features of the topic sentence 1. 主题句应具有概括性，而扩展句需要具体。 Each program will focus on a particular friend who can be either a celebrity or an everyday person. Friend is a very popular talk show. The cost

23、 of making fake products is usually lower than real ones. We have to wonder why fake products are so prevalent.,2.主题句应是一种观点而不是一个具体的事实。 Many college students do part-time job. Many college students do part-time jobs for various reasons. Many people buy pirated products because the price is much lower

24、 than legal ones. The reason why people buy pirated products is various.,Common forms for paragraph,1）肯定句（Affirmative Sentence） Example： The need for wildlife protection is greater now than ever before 2）反诘句（Rhetorical Sentence） Example： How do you think people will solve the problem of wildlife pro

25、tection？ 3）不完整句（Fragments） Example： And the workingman？,Supply a topic sentence for each of the following paragraphs: _ Red, for example, is the color of fire, heat, blood and life. People say red is an exciting and active color. They associate red with a strong feeling like anger. Red is also used

26、for signs of danger, such as stop signs and fire engines. Orange is the bright, warm color of leaves in autumn. People say orange is a lively color. They associate orange with happiness. Yellow is the color of sunlight. People say it is a cheerful color. They associate yellow, too, with happiness. G

27、reen is the cool color of grass in spring. People say it is a refreshing color.,_ It is the road which determines the sites of many cities and the growth and nourishment of all. It is the road which controls the development of strategies and fixes the sites of battles. It is the road that gives its

28、frame-work to all economic development. It is the road which is the channel of all trade, and, what is more important, of all ideas. In its most humble function it is a necessary guide without which progress from place to place would be a ceaseless experiment; it is a sustenance without which organi

29、zed society would be impossible, thus the road moves and controls all history.,Supporting Sentence,主题句的后面必须要跟上几个支持句用来进一步阐述、解释、说明主题句。可以用具体的事例、证据或进一步论证的手法来达到支持主题句的目的。,一个段落的支持句有主要支持句(major supporting sentences)和次要支持句(minor supporting sentences)之分。 例1：(主题句) There are several factors affecting climate. (

30、推展句1)One factor is the mount of sunlight received. (推展句2)Altitude, or the height above sea level, also determines climate. (推展句3)The oceans have an effect on the climate of adjacent land. (推展句4)In addition, climate is influenced by the general circulation of the atmosphere.,(主题句)I dont teach because

31、 teaching is easy for me. (主要推展句1)Teaching is the most difficult of the various ways I have attempted to earn my living: mechanic, carpenter, writer. (主要推展句2)For me, teaching is a red-eye, sweaty-palm, sinking-stomach profession. (次要推展句1)Red-eye, because I never feel ready to teach no matter how lat

32、e I stay up preparing. (次要推展句2)Sweaty-palm, because Im always nervous before I enter the classroom, sure that I will be found out for the fool that I am. (次要推展句3)Sinking-stomach, because I leave the classroom an hour later convinced that I was even more boring than usual.,习作评析 Can Money Buy Happines

33、s 有人认为金钱是幸福之本（source of happiness） 也有人认为金钱是万恶之源（root of all evil） 我的看法（my opinion）,Some say that society today is based on money. There is no (主题句) question that money is important in our lives. People view （主题句） （转折句） money differently. Some people consider money a source of (主题句) happiness. To the

34、m, money is everything. They dream of （主要支持句） （次要支持句） luxury homes, clothes, jewelry, etc. In other words, they （次要支持句） dream of a luxurious lifestyle. They cannot imagine life （次要支持句） without money and material things.,Task 10Topic sentence: Philately is an interesting hobby,The outline is: 1) Ther

35、e are beautiful pictures on postage stamps; 2) There are portraits of historical figures on them; 3)It is always a delight to get a stamp I have never seen before; 4) I can learn something by looking at the stamps I have collected.,Planning a Paragraph,Philately is an interesting hobby. Every time I

36、 open my albums and look at the stamps Ive collected over the years, I learn something new. On many of them are printed drawings or pictures of rare birds, animals, trees or flowers. Under a magnifying glass they look very beautiful, and they help to increase my knowledge of nature. On other stamps

37、there are portraits of historical figures, such as Qu Yuan and Dr. Sun Yatsen, George Washington and Chester W. Nimits. Whenever I see an unfamiliar name, I will try to find some information about the person by consulting an encyclopedia. In this way I have come to know something about quite a few p

38、eople who are famous for one reason or another. Some of my friends and relatives who know I am interested in stamps often show me used envelopes. If I see a stamp which I have never seen before or I havent got yet, I will ask them to give it to me, and it seems that they are always kind enough to ob

39、lige me. It is always a delight to add a new stamp to my collection, and the more stamps I have, the more interested I am in philately. Student,Why is travel becoming more and more popular? What are the advantages of travel?,Travel is beneficial to us in at least three ways. (topic sentence) First,

40、by travelling we can enjoy Second, we will meet and see when we travel. Third, travel will not only help us , but also will help us . With all these advantages, .,Advantages of Travel,Travel is beneficial to us in at least three ways. First, by travelling we can enjoy the beautiful scenery in differ

41、ent places. We will see with our own eyes many places read of in books, and visit some famous cities and scenic spots. Second, we will meet people with different interests and see strange and different things when we travel. We can get ideas of the conditions and customs of other people, taste diffe

42、rent foods and local flavors if we like. In this way, we can understand how differently other people live. Third, travel will not only help us gain knowledge of geography and history and other knowledge, but also will help us keep healthy and make us less narrow-minded. Travel does benefit us both m

43、entally and physically. With all these advantages, its no wonder that travel is becoming more and more popular.,Exercise,Develop the following into a paragraph. The police department can help people to deal with many kinds of problems. The police can also help in medical emergencies. Every city has

44、a special telephone number for police department.,Ways of Developing Paragraphs,Development by Time Development by Process Development by Space Development by Example or Generalization Development by Comparison and Contrast Development by Cause and Effect Development by Classification Development by

45、 Definition Development by a Combination of Methods,Development by Time,To describe things in order of time: earlier things are mentioned before later things, the first thing first and the last thing last. It is also called chronological sequencing. Words you can.; you can.; you can; you can.; While

46、 in college, you can; you can; you can; you can. (block) There are many differences between college and high school in Britain. In high school, you can In college, you canIn high school, you can While in college, you but in high school, (alternating),Development by Cause and Effect,Sound reasoning o

47、r logic (理由充分、逻辑性强）is naturally the most important quality of any causal analysis. Two basic ways of organizing paragraphs developed by cause and effect: (1) To state an effect and devote the rest of the paragraph to examining the causes. (果因分析法） (2) To state a cause and then mention or predict the

48、effects. （因果分析法） Words and Phrases (P92),Why do people like to slim now? (结果） There are many reasons for that. （分析原因）Firstly, they have realized that fatness is harmful to health because it can cause diseases such as heart attack and high blood pressure or even the stroke. Secondly, overweight may s

49、poil their image, especially for some young girls, who think they will not be loved by handsome boys. Thirdly, a good-looking figure can not only attract people but make you feel more self-confident than ever before.,果因分析法,因果分析法,Why would I like to learn English? The first reason for that is learning English will help me to know more about different cultures. And also, learning English can give me chances to make friends with people from other countries. The last reason is learning English might give me a good opportunity to get a better job. Thus, learning Engl