Appraisal Theory 功能语言学评价理论

1、Appraisal: negotiating attitudes,The language of emotion, ethics and aesthetics,1.J.R.Matin 2.Definitions and basic structure 3.Details a. Attitude b. Amplification c. Source Application to analysis of a poem .Comment,Prof. J. R. Martin Life: J. R. Martin is Professor of Linguistics at the Universit

2、y of Sydney. His research interests include systemic theory, functional grammar, discourse semantics, register, genre, multimodality and critical discourse analysis, focusing on English and Tagalog - with special reference to the transdisciplinary fields of educational linguistics and social semioti

3、cs. Professor Martin was elected a fellow the Australian Academy of the Humanities in 1998, and awarded a Centenary Medal for his services to Linguistics and Philology in 2003.,Recent publications Working with Discourse: meaning beyond the clause (J R Martin 1.Affect : expressing our feelings People

4、 express their feelings in discourse in two general ways: positive and negative; directly and implied. Affect can be positive or negative and that it can be realized directly or indirectly. 1) positive and negative; people can have good feelings and bad feelings. for example, satisfied, respect, wis

5、h; pain, bitterness, feared, etc. We are ecstatic. They would become restless.,Attitudes,2)a.directly :emotions can described in different ways. First ,speaker refers to a emotional state, using words that name specific emotions: .for example :torn to pieces, pain ,ecstatic, feared, worried, etc. Se

6、cond is physical expression: speaker refers to emotion physically, describing behavior that also directly expresses emotion ;for example :withdrawn, press his face into his hands, shake uncontrollably to express fear, etc.,Attitudes,b .implicit : the speaker describes unusual behavior to express fee

7、lings indirectly. For example, drink too much ,wander from window to window, just staring in front of him. metaphor is another way to express feelings indirectly. For example, ice cold in a sweltering night ; eyes bewildered , but dull like the dead. Question: what about neutral?,Attitudes,Judging p

8、eoples character,2.Judging peoples character : we judge peoples character from two perspectives :personal judgments of admiration or criticism and moral judgments of praise or condemnation, both can be positive or negative and explicitly or implicitly. 1)Personal judgment means to comment on the beh

9、avior of people. It can also be positive (admiring) and negative (criticizing );for example, Helena describes her first love with words :energetic, intelligent , popular to show her admiration to him directly and phrase as working in a top security structure to judge his character indirectly.,Judgin

10、g peoples character,2) moral judgments can be made positive or negative :it can also be made directly and indirectly. a. Helena condemns her leaders for their dishonesty and inhumanity Our leaders are too holy and innocent. And faceless. What else can this abnormal life be than a cruel human rights

11、violation?. b. Helena praises the leaders of their courage: At least their leaders have the guts to stand by their vulture ,to recognize their sacrifices. With admiration and criticism, moral judgments can also be made directly or implied. Metaphor plays a role in judging character: And today they a

12、ll wash their hands in innocence.,Appreciating things,Appreciating things: things can be appreciated positively or negatively. Appreciating things includes evaluation of different kinds of things, as well as relationships, quality of life and even semiotic things. The following are the appreciation

13、of things in Helenas narrative. Positive a beautiful relationship a very serious issue healing of breaches restoration of broken relationships negative my unsuccessful marriage a frivolous question broken relationships the community he or she has injured,The borderline of character and value: there

14、are several instances of attitude in our texts that could perhaps be analysed as either judgment of character or appreciation of things. These bring us to the border of character and value. It is important to take co-text into consideration ,rather than analysing simply item by item.,Amplification,A

15、mplification :degree of the appraisal One distinctive feature of attitude is that attitudes are gradable. This means that we can express how strongly we feel about someone or something. Two kinds of amplification: 1:force :turning the volume up and down Words that intensify meaning: somewhat/fairlly

16、 /quite /really /sharply /extremely intelligent Words that include degrees of intensity : happy/delighted /ecstatic. 2.focus:sharpening or softening categories of people and things: about/exactly; real /sort of /kind of,Amplification,Amplification,Sum-up: amplifying attitude involves a set of resour

17、ces for adjusting how strongly we feel about people and things. Technically we refer to these resources as force. We use them to turn the volume up or down. Grading experiential boundaries involves resources that that sharpen or blur apparently categorical distinctions. Technically these resources a

18、re referred to as focus. They make cut and dried distinctions negotiable. Technically these resources are referred to as graduation.,Source of attitudes:,Source of attitudes: who are the evaluation coming from? One can express their own opinion ,that means he is responsible for all of the evaluation

19、 . However , he can also explicitly introduce other peoples voice by quoting or reporting what other people said.,Source of attitudes,This potential for sourcing what is said was one of the factors that got the Russian linguist Bakhtin thinking about the dialogic nature of discourse,even in text we

20、traditionally think of as monologues. Two terms Heterogloss :the source of attitude is other than the writer Monogloss (single voice):the source is simply the author,Source of attitudes,Three types of heterogloss: 1.Projection:quote or report what people say or think ,through projection then we can

21、introduce additional sources of evaluation. We can choose from projection over and over again to explore the source of sources, and the source of the source of sources.,Source of attitudes,Four ways to attribute sources: as projecting clauses, as names for speech acts, as projecting within clauses,

22、as scare quotes. I know where everything began. My story begins in my late teenage years as a farm girl . Many of those who have come forward had previously been regarded as respectable members of their communities Abruptly mutter the feared word trip and drive off .,Source of attitudes,Modality: Al

23、ongside projection, another way of introducing additional voices into a text is via modality. Hallidaly describes modality as a resource which sets up a semantic space between yes and no, a cline running between positive and negative poles. At each pole of scales of modality is the choice of positiv

24、e or negative polarity. Modality doesnt take voice on and deny them; it opens up a space for negotiation in which different points of view can circulate around an issue, a space perhaps for mediation and possible reconciliation.,Source of attitudes,Five types of modality to negotiate information and

25、 services: usuality, probability, obligation , inclination and ability.,Source of attitudes,Concession :known as counterexpectancy, adjust and monitor readers expectation . Concessives: conjunctions that adjust and monitor expectation, eg: but,even if etc. I cant handle the man anymore! But ,I cant

26、get out . Continuatives: these are like conjunctions but they occur inside the clause, rather than at the beginning. eg: already, finally, still, etc.,Sum-up: What we have are three main appraisal systems: attitude, amplification and source. Attitude comprises affect ,judgment and appreciation: our three major regions of feeling. Amplification covers grading , including force, and focus: force involve the choice to raise or lower the intensity of gradable items, focus the option of sharpening or softening an experiential boundary. Source covers resource that introduce additional