Chapter1 History, Theories, and Met.ppt

1、Chapter 1: History, Theories, and Methods,How have we thought about the child? How do we think about children today? How do we know about children?,What is good about children today? What is bad about children today?,What Is Child Development?,What Is Child Development?,Dimensions of Development Bio

2、logical Cognitive SocioEmotional BioPsychoSocial Development,Systematic changes and continuities in the individual that occur between conception and death or pattern of change that begins at conception and continues through adolescence.,What Is Child Development?,Defining “Child” through Periods of

3、Development Prenatal Infancy Early Childhood/Preschool Middle Childhood/School age Adolescence,What Is Child Development?,Basic Issues Nature vs. Nurture Free Will vs. Determinism Continuity vs. Discontinuity Early vs. Late Experience Stability vs. Change Qualitative vs. Quantitative Change,What Vie

4、ws of Children Do We Find Throughout History?,Ancient Times and Middle Ages Children viewed as innately evil Age 7 is the “age of reason” Children were treated as miniature adults John Locke Child came into world as tabula rasa, or “blank slates” Focus on role of environment and experience Jean-Jacq

5、ues Rousseau Children are inherently good and moral Industrial Revolution Nuclear family Childhood is recognized as a time period of life,Theories of Child Development,What Are Theories?,Related sets of statements about events Include descriptive terms and concepts Based on certain assumptions Allow

6、 explanations and predictions Wide range of applicability,Why Do We Have Theories?,Theories of development help us Describe Explain Predict Choose Research Guide Application,The Psychoanalytic Perspective,Freuds theory of psychosexual development Eriksons theory of psychosocial development View chil

7、dren (and adults) involved in conflict Internal drive and urges Internalize external demands and rules Stage theories Distinct periods of development,Freuds Theory of Psychosexual Development,Sigmund Freud (18561939) Levels of awareness Conscious level Preconscious level Unconscious level Parts of p

8、ersonality Id Ego Superego Amount of gratification at each stage Fixated at that stage,Stages of Psychosexual Theory of Development,Oral Stage Sucking and biting Early weaning or breast-fed too long Oral Fixation: nail-biting, smoking, “biting wit” Anal Stage Control and elimination of waste Excessi

9、vely strict or permissive toilet training Anal Fixation: anal-retentive (neatness); anal-expulsion (sloppiness),Stages of Psychosexual Theory of Development,Phallic Stage Parent-child conflict over masturbation View same-sex parent as rival Oedipus and Electra Complex Latency Stage Sexual feelings r

10、emain unconscious Genital Stage Begins at adolescence Desire sexual gratification through intercourse with member of other sex Interest in any other sexual gratification indicates fixation at an earlier stage of development,Evaluation of Psychosexual Theory of Development,Contributions Comprehensive

11、 theory of childhood Influenced parents, child-care workers and educators Criticisms Based on patients (women) who were emotionally troubled Little empirical data Placed too much emphasis on instincts and unconscious motives Erik Erikson and Karen Horney,Eriksons Theory of Psychosocial Development,E

12、rik Erikson (19021994) Modified and expanded Freuds theory Successful resolution of life (Psychosocial) crises bolsters sense of identity Differences from psychosexual development Focuses on development of self-identity through expanding social interactions Includes conscious and purposeful acts in

13、development Extends stages to eight; throughout adulthood,Stages of Psychosocial Development,Trust versus Mistrust Autonomy versus Shame and Doubt Initiative versus Guilt Industry versus Inferiority Identity versus Role Diffusion Intimacy versus Isolation Generativity versus Stagnation Ego Integrity

14、 versus Despair,Evaluation of Psychosocial Development,Highly appealing Emphasizes choice and minimizes urges Portrays people as prosocial and giving Unified view of life-span development Some empirical support,The Learning Perspective Behavioral and Social Cognitive Theories,Behaviorism Classical c

15、onditioning Operant conditioning Social Cognitive Theory Observational learning,What Is Behaviorism?,Basic Concept Only observable behavior John B. Watson Founder of Behaviorism Classical Conditioning Ivan Pavlov Operant Conditioning B. F. Skinner,Classical Conditioning,Definition A type of learning

16、 in which a neutral stimulus acquires the ability to elicit a response. Terms UCS, UCR, CS, CR Process Neutral stimulus repeatedly paired with UCS Neutral stimulus acquires the ability to elicit the CS Examples Pavlovs Dogs Bell and Pad Method to eliminate bed-wetting,Figure 1.1,Classical Conditioni

17、ng,Operant Conditioning,Definition A type of learning where the consequences of a behavior influence whether the behavior continues. Reinforcement Any stimulus that increases the frequency of the behavior they follow,Principles of Operant Conditioning,Shaping Positive reinforcement Present something

18、 pleasant Negative reinforcement Remove something unpleasant Positive punishment Present something unpleasant Negative punishment Remove something pleasant,Positive Versus Negative Reinforcers,Figure 1.2,Negative Reinforcers Versus Punishments,Figure 1.3,Social Cognitive Theory,Albert Bandura Acquir

19、e basic “know-how” through observational learning Latent learning Bobo Doll Learning alters childs mental representation of environment and influences belief in ability to change the environment Child is an active learner,Evaluation of Learning Theories,Contributions Meets the goals of describing, e

20、xplaining, predicting, and influencing aspects of childrens behavior Principles are abundant in education and clinical application Criticisms Unclear if learning is only mechanical Underestimates role of biological-maturation factors,The Cognitive Perspective,Focuses on childrens mental processes Ho

21、w children perceive and mentally represent the world Jean Piaget (18961980) Cognitive-developmental theory Information-processing theory (Lev Vygotskys Socio-Cultural Theory),Piagets Cognitive-Developmental Theory,Working with Binet on IQ tests for children, Piaget became interested in childrens wro

22、ng answers Piagets work was not widely read until mid 1950s Difficult to understand Introduced when behaviorism and psychoanalysis were popular Piagets view of children as “natural physicists” Children are scientists, testing their view of the world,Piagets Basic Concepts,Scheme Pattern of action in

23、volved in acquiring or organizing knowledge Adaptation Organize our world by interacting with the environment Assimilation Responding to new object or event according to existing schemes Accommodation Adjusting scheme to a new object or event Equilibration Process of restoring equilibrium after a pe

24、riod of accommodation,Piagets Stages of Cognitive-Development Theory,Four major stages Sensorimotor Preoperational Concrete Operational Formal Operational Stages are universal Development is based on childrens interactions with their environments Influential in many educational settings,Evaluation o

25、f Cognitive-Development Theory,Piaget may have underestimated childrens abilities by age Cognitive growth may be more gradual than Piagets distinct stages,Information-Processing Theory,Influenced by the concepts of computer science Process of encoding information (input) Storage of information (long

26、-term memory) Retrieval of information (short-term memory) Manipulation of information to solve problems (output) Software (mental processes) Hardware (brain) Consider “limitations” of child Short-term memory Ability to multi-task Applications in education,The Sociocultural Perspective,View children

27、 as social beings who are influenced by the cultures in which they live Lev Vygotskys (18961934) sociocultural theory Can also be considered a Cognitive Theory,Vygotskys Sociocultural Theory,Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) Range of tasks child can perform with help of someone more skilled Use of

28、conversations, external and internal, to guide the learning Scaffolding Adult provides problem-solving methods until child can perform independently May also be used by children with peers,Evaluation of Sociocultural Theory,Research support for Scaffolding Private speech Teachers often discourage pr

29、ivate speech due to distraction,The Biological Perspective,Physical development Gains in height and weight Development of nervous system Developments connected with hormones, heredity Ethology,What Is Ethology?,Concern with instinctive behavior patterns Influenced by Charles Darwin, & Konrad Lorenz

30、Pre-wiredinstinctive behavior patterns Fixed action patterns (FAPs) Influence of prenatal hormones Lorenzs work on attachment during the first year Imprinting,Evaluation of Ethology,Assume instinctive behaviors can be modified through learning Suggestion that instincts play a role in human behavior,

31、The Ecological Perspective,Explains development through interactions between children and the settings in which they live Urie Bronfenbrenner (19172005) Reciprocal interactions Focus on interactions between parent and child (bidirectional),The Ecological Systems Theory,Five Embedded Systems Microsys

32、tem Mesosystem Exosystem Macrosystem Chronosystem Evaluation of Theory Helps focus attention on changing systems,The Contexts of Human Development,Figure 1.4,How Do We Study Child Development?,What Is the Scientific Method?,Step 1: Forming a Research Question Step 2: Developing a Hypothesis Step 3:

33、Testing the Hypothesis Step 4: Drawing Conclusions about the Hypothesis Step 5: Publishing Findings,What Is Naturalistic Observation?,Field studies Observations done in natural (real-life) settings Control for interference Examples of naturalistic-observation studies Activity levels of 3- to 5-year

34、olds in preschools Motor behavior of Native American Hopi children strapped to cradleboards Socialization patterns in diverse cultures,What Is a Case Study?,Account of behavior of an individual Includes many different types of information Direct observations Questionnaires Standardized tests Intervi

35、ews Other sources of records Examples of case study Piagets cognitive-development model Freuds psychosexual theory,Correlation: Putting Things Together,Mathematical calculation to determine relationships between behaviors and/or traits Correlation coefficient Mathematical number between +1.00 and -1

36、.00 Positive correlation Negative correlation Limitation: Shows relationships, not cause and effect,Examples of Positive and Negative Correlations,Figure 1.5,What Is an Experiment?,Used to determine cause and effect Research method in which one group receives treatment and another does not Variables Independent variable manipulated by experimenter Dependent variable measured results Participant Groups Experimental group receive the treatment Control group do not receive the treatment Random Assignment Ethical and Practical Consi