主题句结尾句常见错误及用法.ppt

1、写作能力的提高是一个日积月累、循序渐进的过程，难以通过捷径“速成”。考试意义上的写作则受到考试时间、大规模判卷等客观因素的制约，这种种制约又通过试卷的命题形式直接对作文字数以及通过提纲、提示和图表对写作内容及短文展开方向等作出限制。这些限制便使本无“诀窍”可循的写作有了“套路”、“模式”、“捷径”和“章法”。,四六级考试中的短文写作每一段均可包括主题句+扩展句+终结句，每段都可由这三句展开，其中扩展句可并列使用，这就是三句式段落展开法。同时，四六级考试中的短文写作又都包括主题段+扩展段+终结段，每篇短文写作都可依这样的模式展开，这就是三段式短文展开法。,历年真题剖析高分最基本要素：内容；结构；

2、用词,1. 主题句基本概念,主题句是论说文或说明文中阐明段落中心思想或主要内容的核心句子，对全段的论述起着宏观指导和限制作用, 是构成英语段落的重要手段。主题句就象公路上各路段的路标一样，引导驾驶员依循指定的路线行驶，以避免迷失方向。例如：,If a person expects to do things successfully, he should have confidence. It is confidence that enables a person to face the obstacles or drawback that stand in his way. In fact,

3、one can hardly accomplish anything if he has doubt about his ability in what he does. When ones confidence is shaken, he tends to become discouraged and depressed and chances are that he may fail to do what he could. In contrast, a person who never loses heart will succeed in what seems impossible.,

4、并非所有句子都能充当主题句。例如,This is what I want to say.,Everyone knows that May 1st is Labor Day.,Hands up, or Ill kill you!,这些句子要么缺少能进一步讨论的话题，或者没有围绕话题待展开的内容，因此不具备主题句的功能。,检验主题句有一个较为简便的方法，既针对句子用Why? (待解释) 和How?(待描述)设问，如果能够解答，则可基本认定为主题句。如果难以解答，或答案很荒谬，则可排除主题句的可能性。例如：,Pronouncing a language is a skill. (可解答),Readi

5、ng extensively helps to enrich our knowledge. (可解答),He is my father.(不可解答),She told me that I couldnt make progress if I work hard. (不可解答),主题句多见于段首。这样，既可以突出要点，使读者从一开始就可以明了段落的主题和中心思想；也利于作者有效地组织段落，控制段落内容，提醒作者紧扣主题。有时主题句也可能位于段落的中间。这种位置利于先举事例，然后于段落中间部分用主题句综合概括，接着进一步举例和引深说明。段尾主题句主要是对前文进行总结和概括。或者为了突出具体内容，引

6、起读者的思考和兴趣，也可将主题句置于段尾。,（1）直接表达式,这种方式多用简单句，毫不拖泥带水，直奔主题。,主题句的呈现,On Making Friends,1. Friends are important to us.,2. But real friendship is not easy to come by.,3. A friend in need is a fiend indeed.,The “Project Hope”,1. Now Project Hope is underway in China.,2. The Project is of great importance to C

7、hinas education.,3. Poverty is not so terrible, but poor education is fatal.,（2）强调式,为了体现某个意思的重要性，人们在书面语中可用一些特定的句式来突出重点或凸现主题。这些句子就称为强调句。如倒装，it前置强调，反问，重复某词语等。构成强调主题句的句式以it引导的句子居多。因为这类句式较易掌握，也颇为实用。例如：,On Making Friends,1. It is certain that a man without friends will suffer a great deal from solitude.,

8、2. It is not difficult to make friends, but it is not easy to obtain real friendship.,3. Hopefully, from my friend I will learn a lot and to my friends I can offer what I should.,The “Project Hope”,1. To help poor kids to go back to school, China has sponsored a special project known as Project Hope

9、 for years.,2. It will be very hard for China to achieve its planned economic growth and make great progress in science without a well-educated population.,3. It is on the young generation that China places her great hope.,（3）条件句式,为避免句式过于单调，还可以用表条件的主题句引出段落出题。这种句式便于先引出话题，再进一步亮明观点。,If a person wants t

10、o live a happy life, he should have some friends.,If all the kids can be well-educated, China will undoubtedly become stronger in near future.,If thee were no electricity, the world would be a quite different one.,了解了主题句的概念和作用，为写好主题句作文打下了基础。但怎样才能由主题句有效展开段落，是不少学习者颇为头疼的问题。虽然知道主题句是段落中最具概括性的句子，后面的句子应该是起

11、支撑作用的、描叙或讨论细节的拓展句，但究竟如何拓展法，还是朦朦胧胧，不得要领。,1) 解答法,根据给出的主题句或自己写出的主题句，先用why? 或 How? 设问，然后把段落主题句作为一个总的问题以解释、讨论或描述的方式来给予解答。这样，写段落就变为回答问题。,2) 逐句问答法：,确立主题句之后，将主题句作为一个总问题，接下来，以前句问，后句答的连锁问答方式展开段落。这样，不但把错综复杂的思维表达化解为前后相接的简便的问与答的模式，以便于有效地展开论述，而且能有效地保持句子间的连贯性和逻辑性。,3) 分项阐述法,根据主题句提出的论点或话题从几个不同的角度围绕段落主题展开讨论，由此及彼，分门别类

12、，不愁没有内容和缺乏说服力。例如：,4) 两点法,人们都习惯用一分为二的方法分析和看待事物。用这种方法来展开段落，既便于操作，也具有较强的逻辑性和说服力。例如：,I have learned English for almost ten years, but it is difficult for me to have a good command of the language. For one thing, I just learn English by memorizing many rules. Rules are important. But rules dont always te

13、ll us how to use English properly in given situation. For another, I fail to understand that the study of a language is to communicate rather than compete for good grades. Admittedly, I have a comparatively large vocabulary, but I often feel at a loss for words when I try to speak or write. In fact,

14、 to learn a language is not so difficult, but to apply what one has learned about a language is far from easy.,5）反证法,从反面来论证由主题句提出的观点，用反面的事实来证明某一观点的正确性，使自己的论述更有说服力，也利于段落的展开。,Electricity plays a very important part to our modern society. A world without electricity will be a terrible one. Factories ha

15、ve to be closed because of power failure. Busy traffic lines will be in a state of chaos and suffer from great loss. Moreover, modern communication systems will fall apart and people will find it hard to get information on time. Also, it will be impossible for us to enjoy the convenience and enterta

16、inment in our daily life. Such a world will look like a hell.,Naturally everyone expects to be perfect. But unfortunately there is no one who never makes mistakes, and no one is to be blamed unless he refuses to learn from them. Many young people become discouraged when they recognize in themselves

17、qualities that they do not likebad temper, selfishness, laziness and other unpleasant things. Just remember that we all have some of these faults and have to fight to overcome them. So one must learn not to be too unhappy when he makes a mistake.,The Importance of confidence,1凡事都要有信心,2缺乏信心的原因,3树立信心是

18、可能的,1. No one will succeed in doing thing without confidence.,a. encourage us to face any difficulty,b. the study of English (example),c. job interview,2. There may be several reasons for one to become unsure of himself,a. lack experiences,b. doubt about ones own ability,c. overestimate difficulty,3

19、. Confidence can be built up if one takes a correct attitude toward difficulties.,a. if we try, we can,b. never lose heart when we happen to fail,文章一开始就道破主题，这是最简单实用的方式。常用于记叙文、说明文和议论文。,英语作文开头和结尾的写作方式：,1)点明主题,Grades are really important for most students. Schools and the society as a whole tend to val

20、ue a student by grades. Students with higher grades are preferable for admission to good schools or colleges. Also, successful application for satisfactory jobs depends a great deal on good grades.,开头段用提问的方式引出主题，激起读者的阅读兴趣，也为下面段落的展开提供了条件。但这种开头应避免 “Do you think so, my dear friend?” “Do you agree with

21、me?” “Whats your opinion?” 等毫无意义的提问，以免引起读者的不快或反感。,2) 提出问题,作文开头先概括性地叙述某一现象或事物，再由一般到具体引出主题。这样，可使作文的开头更显自然。例如：,3）一般到具体,Every year there are changes in climate in different parts of the world. Some of these changes are due to natural causes. However, some climate changes are caused by air pollution and

22、these changes may increase.,开头段直接说明写作目的或表明对某事物的看法，使读者能一目了然。例如：,When I decided to enter the university, like most freshmen I had only the vaguest notion of what subject I intended to major in. But now after two quarters of aimlessly chosen course work, and after a good deal of self-analysis, I have d

23、ecided that there are at least four good reasons why I should major in business administration.,4）说明目的,在作文开头段根据自己的认识对某事物给出一个简单的定义，并适当说明。,Humans are social animals. They depend on groups for survival. An individual human being lost in a wildness is capable of doing many things. But he or she will pro

24、bably be thinking constantly about how much better it would be if there were other people around to talk to and to help.,5) 以简单定义开头,恰当的引用一谚语或某一句名言开头，引出讨论的主题，可使读者印象较深。,There is the saying that time is money. It is true that money is as precious as money. But it is also true that no one can afford to

25、waste his time no matter how rich he is, because when time is gone, it will never come back.,6）用引语或谚语开头,Manners are very important in every country, but ways of expressing good manners are different form country to country. What is good manners in one country may not be appropriate behavior in anoth

26、er. So the safe advice for a foreigner, no matter what country he is visiting, is to follow the old proverb: “ When in Rome, do as the Romans do.”,好的开头等于成功的一半。但结尾也十分重要。草率结尾，无法给人留下完整的印象，更可能使自己的努力前功尽弃。故应力求做到有始有终。常见的结尾有以下四种方式：,在结尾段对全文讨论的问提或要点进行概括总结，并进一步明确和深化主题，使读者留下较深刻的印象。例如：,A well-handed telephone ca

27、ll will give the caller a good impression of the company he or she is dealing with. For this reason, an office secretary who can handle telephone calls cheerfully, tactfully, and efficiently is a valuable asset to any organization.,Children who walk in their sleep usually outgrow the habit. In many

28、adults, too, the condition is more or less temporary. Although sleepwalking itself is nothing to become alarmed about, the problems that cause the sleepwalking may be very serious.,针对文中论述的问题提出作者的建议，以引起读者的注意和思考。例如：,Therefore, it is necessary for us to exploit more energy resources to meet the ever-in

29、creasing demand of modern society. For example, garbage can be used to generate electricity. Also, the extensive application of solar energy should be encouraged. Even the heat of human bodies will become a new resources of energy.,In fact, payment for a job should vary with any differences in the w

30、ay that the job is performed. Where it is simple to measure the work done, as in the work done with the hands, monetary encouragement schemes are often chosen; for indirect workers, where measurement is difficult, methods of additional payments must be employed.,在结尾段对未来作出展望，启发和激励读者。,As for the futur

31、e, it seems certain that English in one form or another will be spoken by far more people than it is today. It will doubtless continue to change and develop as a living language always does.,In general, all of the work done in the twentieth century in these areas has improved life for many people. M

32、any scientists in these fields now feel that their main concern is keeping people healthy. They are less concerned with curing disease that people already have. Much work still remains to be done. All of the successful work described here provides great hope for the future.,以提问的方式结尾，促使读者对全文内容进一步思考和产

33、生更大的兴趣。例如：,It seems that almost everyone is superstitious in one way of another. We all want to be able to tell the future, control the world around us, or have some luck. In the last part of the twentieth century, now that science is the way of the world, we still hold many of our ancient superstit

34、ions. Do they work? Are they fact? Of course not. Or are we sure?,文章的各个段落既自成体系，又必须相互协调和照应，以利于全文主题思想的表达。一般来说，因为不同的位置，段落的功能也有所不同。,段落之间的关系,(1) 作文存在的障碍和问题,However, some books are harmful. Books that tell people to do bad things will certainly do great harm to us. Especially yellow books will ruin the yo

35、ung people. These books are no good. So we must choose books to read.,a. 翻译式作文。 例:,The First Day I Came to College,I always remember the day I come to college. It was a sunny day and I was very excited. I have arrived at the college in the afternoon. Everything had seemed fresh to me. The campus was

36、 beautiful. The college was located at the foot of a Mountain and was surround with trees. To the east of it we can see a blue river. There are so many teaching buildings. It was here that I would study for four years. I thought that I must study hard in order to live up to the expectations of my pa

37、rents and friends. It is true that there are many challenges, but I will prove myself a worthy college student.,b. 时态混杂。 例:,Computer,Nowadays computers are widely used in our society. We can see computers everywhere. Many people use computers in schools and colleges. We also use computers in offices

38、, libraries, banks and at home.,c. 没啥可写。 例:,Fake commodities are bad to us. They not only are bad to our life, but also to our health. In a store , even a supermarket, all kind of fake commodities always can be found. It is very harmful to customers society and even to a country.,Fake Commodities,Do

39、 you like travelling? Probably you will say “Yes, I like it very much!” Thats right.,Traveling,I think travelling is really good to everyone of us. Do you agree with me, my dear friend?,d. 套用中文模式。 例:,. As I was a little tired from the journey to the college, I went to bed early. At mid night, I sudd

40、enly woke up. I found that there was no gate in the college.,The First Day I Came to College,e. 主题模糊。 例:,(2) 作文与词语,Im a student of Hunan University. Im studying in Tumu Department. I like my major very much.,要能正确和恰当地用词语表达意思，首先必须意识到英语词语和汉语词语并非是一一对应的。应适当了解正式文体与非正式文体的差异，尤其是词语的区别。例如，汉语的“觉得”可用英语的feel、fin

41、d、think等词语来表达，但具体怎么用，还须依句意而定：,1. 你觉得这个计划怎么样？,What do you think of the plan?,2. 他觉得有人在注视着他们。,How do you like the plan?,He became aware that someone was watching him.,3. 我觉得他不会同意。 I have a sense that he wont agree.,4. 你觉得这样做合算吗？ Do you find it pays?,没 能 cant fail to/unable to/not be in a position to/,

42、很 多 a lot of various/plentiful/numerous/countless/ abundant/quite a few,必 须 must be supposed to/be obliged to/have no alternative,希 望 hope feel like/would like/expect/be dying to/cant wait to,努 力 work hard hardworking/diligent/industrious /dedicated,得 到 get obtain/acquire/ achieve/ gain/win/earn,有 趣

43、 interesting fascinating/attractive/entertaining/ pleasant/enjoyable,增 进 increase expand/add to/ enhance/ enlarge/ broaden/ develop/improve,这些单词在作文中出现频率较高，有必要格外小心，老出错，就会给读者或评卷人以不好的印象。,求表达正确:,behavior information traffic equipment homework damage,knowledge progress trouble experience work money advic

44、e,排比结构,把语法结构相同，意思同等重，语气一致的句子结构或句子平行排列，可加重语气，增强节奏感。也是展开段落的一种有效方式。例如：,句式结构单一,再看看排比句在一般作文段落中是如何运用的：,Television presents a vivid world in front of us. TV programs not only inform us of current events both at home and abroad, but also bring us with marvelous wonders in the world. By watching TV, we can a

45、lso enjoy exciting sports games, lovely wild animals and colorful foreign customs. It is true that television helps to expand our knowledge and beautify our life in a vivid way.,Sports and games are good for our health. Undoubtedly, regular participation in games and sports will enable one to build

46、a strong body, to have a good appetite and to delay the process of aging. What is more, by the training of sports and games that a person will be quicker in doing things and stronger in fighting against disease.,1. Nothingis+erthanto+V/Nothingis+more+adj+thanto+V e.g.Nothingismoreimportantthantorece

47、iveeducation. 2.cannotemphasizetheimportanceoftoomuch.（再怎么强调.的重要性也不为过。） 3. Thereisnodenyingthat+S+V. 4.Itisuniversallyacknowledgedthat+: 5. Thereisnodoubtthat+ 6. Thereasonwhy+句子isthat+句子,7. So+adj+be+主词+that+如此.以致.） Sopreciousistimethatwecantaffordtowasteit.时间是如此珍贵，我们经不起浪费 8. Adj+as+Subject（主词）+be,

48、S+V Richasourcountryis,thequalitiesofourlivingarebynomeanssatisfactory. 9. enable+Object+to+V 10. Onnoaccountcanwe+V（我们绝对不能.） 11. Itistime+S+过去式（该是.的时候了） 12. Itisconceivablethat+（可想而知的） Itisobviousthat+（明显的） Itisapparentthat+,dueto/Owingto/Thanksto+N/Ving, Whata+Adj+N+S+V! =How+Adj+a+N+V! leavemucht

49、obedesired（令人不满意） haveagreatinfluenceon dogoodto，doharmto, poseagreatthreatto doonesutmostto , spare no effort,有些同学在写作文时, 常感到句与句之间的意思连接不顺，但却找不到原因。其实，这往往是受汉语思维影响的缘故。汉语文句的逻辑关系和上下意思的衔接，往往可通过句子的意义来体现，如 “小张病了，没来上课。” “虚心使人进步，骄傲使人落后。” 英语则须加上必要的连结词；,作文常用连接词：,“Mr. Zhang was absent from class because he was i

50、ll.” “Modesty helps one to go forward, whereas conceit make one lag behind.” 英语句子为体现文句和内容的连贯，常借助于各种连接手段。其中最常用的就是过渡词 (transitions) 或连接词 (connectors)。,能否较好地使用过渡词来体现作文各层次间的内在联系，是评判一篇作文优劣的重要依据之一。故要练好作文， 必须掌握常用过渡词语的功能和作用。,根据其本身的意思和作用，常用过渡词语可以分为以下几类：,first, second, third (the most important), 第一，第二，第三,fir

51、stly, secondly, thirdly (finally), 首先，第二，第三,for example (for instance),例如，,Take, for example,.以为例，,such as (namely),比如，,especially (obviously/surely/undoubtedly), 尤其是(的确/毫无疑问),in fact, (as a matter of fact), 事实上，其实，,similarly, likewise, 同样，也,however (but)然而(但是),on the contrary (by contrast)相反,on the

52、 other hand另一方面,6. 并列,7. 增加,8. 原因/结果,9. 结尾(总结),It is generally acknowledged that there are some similarities between city and countryside. Yet there still exist some differences.,City and Country Life,Generally speaking, as center of culture and commerce, city offers people a good chance of receivin

53、g education. It is in city that people have more job opportunities. In cities, modern transportation makes it convenient for people to go outdoors. Moreover, city inhabitants can entertain themselves because of various places for recreation. However, pollution and housing problem are threats to many

54、 cities.,a. It is generally agreed / acknowledged / believed / known that .,b. No one can deny the fact that .,c. With the development / popularity / increase of .,d. At present, more and more people become to realize / understand that.,e. People used to believed that . but .,f. According to a recen

55、t study / survey / investigation / poll, .,h. . The reasons are as follows:,i. There may be several reasons.,g. There is an old saying / a proverb / that.,a. It is true that . But it is also true that.,b. There is no doubt that.,c. There are indications that.,d. However, we cant deny the fact that.,

56、e. There is every reason for us to say / believe that.,中间,a. In conclusion,b. Despite the advantages / merits of . We must be aware of the fact that.,c. In my opinion. As far as Im concerned. As for me.,d. It is hoped / suggested / advisable that.,e. Hopefully.,结尾,常用结构词:,generally, undoubtedly, admi

57、ttedly, obviously, interestingly, surprisingly, surely, actually, hopefully, probably, especially, in fact,二、四级考试其它作文题型,看图作文与中文提示等作文不同, 文字信息不多,大部分为图表、表格、曲线等。要求考生在观察和理解的基础上用文字客观具体地反映图表所含信息和内容。由于图表、曲线是用数据反映和说明某事物的情况和变化或事物间的相关性，故作文是通过对数据的比较和分析来说明图表和数字的内涵，并据此阐明自己对某事物的认识和看法。,看图作文与其它类型作文的写作不完全相同，其写作要领是：,1

58、) 首先要看懂图表，结合题目认真分析图表所指事物的相关性、复杂性、和代表性。,2) 通过图表中数据和线条起伏变化的趋势，抓住主要问题。根据其所揭示的信息，简明扼要地概括出图形或数据所表示的事物和现象。,4) 摘取图中关键数据，作为文章内容的事实和依据。但不能简单罗列。,5) 作文的结构可为三段或四段.第一段为总起(略述图表所反映的现象,如人口问题, 环境问题等).第二段适当引用关键数据对图表反映的主题进行分析和讨论.结尾段则做出结论或提出建议.,3) 摘取关键数据或信息，有必要的话，先写出各段主题句。,看图作文常用句型:,1) This is a chart / table / diagram

59、 / graph about.,2) From the chart we can see that.,3) As is shown in the chart.,4) According to the graph/chart, we can conclude that.,5) What is important/significant is that.,1) 英文书信的5C原则:,a. Consideration (体贴),b. Conciseness (简洁),e. Correctness (正确),例: It was reported in China Daily that the 4th world Conference on women will be held in Beijing in September, 1995.,2) 求学、求职函：,此类信函的目的是为了让对方了解本人的能力、学历、经验、成绩、愿望等。应尽可能表示自己的长处，以便给对方一个良好的印象，进一步获得面试、面谈的机会。其内容包括以下几个方面