第七章劳动力市场歧视EN.ppt

1、1,第一节 歧视问题的提出section 1 raising the issue of discrimination,我国就业歧视众生相 乙肝歧视案 2003年3月，浙江大学应届毕业生周一超参加嘉兴市秀洲区公务员考试，因在体检时被查出乙肝“小三阳”未被录取，周一超一怒之下将区人事局一名工作人员杀死，刺伤一人。最终周一超被法院判处死刑。,2,身为乙肝病毒携带者，22岁的雷闯9月1日在杭州申领到了从事食品卫生行业的健康证明。这是他投入“乙肝维权”两年来的一次重要的胜利。9月3日，雷闯告别母校浙江大学，出发前往上海交通大学，开始新的求学生活。,3,婚姻歧视案 某地水电工程局10名女工，集体向当地人民

2、法院提出离婚诉讼。这些女工，有的两情相笃，有的新婚燕尔，为什么要一纸休夫呢？原来，水电局规定，合同制工人无配偶的才可以与企业续签劳动合同。为取得劳动资格，10名已婚女工，只好以提出离婚诉讼的方式，集体抗议“婚姻歧视”。,4,相貌歧视案 河南女孩秋子因患有先天性脑积水，自出生起脑袋就比一般人大出不少。2006年下半年，秋子通过了上海昂立教育公司郑州机构的面试，并接受了为期15天的培训，于2006年12月与昂立公司签订劳动合同，同年12月21日，根据外派合同，秋子前往公司加盟学校嘉善分校工作。就在秋子到学校报到的当天，发现“分校负责人的眼神异样”，没过多久，相关部门负责人就电话通知她返回郑州，公司

3、以秋子相貌不佳为由，拒不履行劳动合同。随后，秋子将昂立公司告到了上海劳动仲裁部门，要求昂立公司返还培训费260元，返还差旅费差价50元，并支付违约金1万元,5,2002年我国男女劳动力的行业分布和小时工资,无处不在的性别歧视,6,第一类：农业、采掘业、建筑业、贸易、餐饮 业； 第二类：制造业、地质勘查业、水利业、教育、文化艺术和广播电影电视业、社会服务业； 第三类：为党政机关和社会团体、卫生体育和社会福利业、房地产业、其他行业； 第四类：交通运输仓储和邮电通信业、电力、煤气及水的生产和供应业、金融、保险业、科学研究和综合技术服务业,7,第二节 歧视定义与类型section 2 the defi

4、nition and styles of discrimination,歧视discrimination ： 在劳动力市场上，某些劳动者提供了与其他劳动者相同的生产率，但是由于他们在一些非经济个人特征上有所不同，如性别、年龄、民族、宗教、观念、地域、经历、出身、残疾、外貌等，因而在劳动报酬及劳动条件等方面受到不平等待遇。 Discrimination is the difference in earnings between individuals who are in all economic respects identical. They are equally productive,

5、differing only with respect to some noneconomic, personal characteristicfor example, race, sex, national origin, religion, or sexual preference which gives rise to a difference in treatment.,8,歧视的类型 styles of discrimination： 前市场差别：过去的歧视情感对目前劳动者的教育水平、职业构成、就业选择现状产生影响，由此造成了就业机会和工资水平上的差别。 Differences in

6、 pre-market: the past discrimination affects current workers at aspects of education, occupational composition, and employment options, and this leads to differences on employment opportunities and wage levels. 劳动力市场歧视：指在现行劳动力市场上一切经济方面都相同的个人之间的报酬差别。 Discrimination in the labor market: It means earni

7、ng difference among individuals whose all economic respects is identical in current labor market.,9,理解劳动力市场歧视的三个要点： Three points to understand the labor market discrimination 1、歧视是可以衡量的劳动力市场行为结果，如工资、就业水平、晋升机会等 Discrimination is a measurable action consequence in labor market, including wages, employ

8、ment, promotion, and so on. 2、歧视概念应略去偶然性的常态随机差异，它只包含有规则而不相互排斥的差异。 The definition of discrimination , including differences which is well-regulated and nonexclusive ,should neglect occasional normal random differences. 3、歧视概念提出了区分引起工资差异的劳动力市场歧视与前市场差别的方法。 The definition of discrimination provides an a

9、pproach telling the distinction between labor market discrimination and difference in pre-market ,which cause difference in earnings.,10,11,思考题,一位雇主在雇用工人时，遵循了下面的原则：如果男性工人和女性工人所从事的工作相同，就支付给他们数额相同的工资，并且，雇主为男女雇员向一个养老金计划缴纳的养老金数额也是相同的。但是，雇主承诺在妇女退休之后每月给她们的养老金却比男性要少（假定男女雇员的工作时间一样长），因为向她们支付养老金的年头要更长一些（女性的平均

10、预期寿命要长于男性）。根据最高法院的曼哈特裁定，上面的这位雇主犯有歧视罪， 因为女性和男性在退休以后每月所得到的退休金是不相同的。 （1）最高法院界定歧视的标准与经济学家所使用的标准是否一致? （2）结合材料简要说明曼哈特裁定（关于歧视的界定）对男女就业量会产生什么影响？ （伊兰伯格/史密斯，410页）,12,参考答案： （1）根据经济学家的标准，如果具有相同劳动生产率雇员的工资水平不同，则可以认为存在劳动力市场歧视。按照这个标准，本题中的雇主不存在歧视行为。因为从事相同工作的男女雇员在工作时获得的年工资相同。而且，雇主为男女雇员缴纳的养老金数额相同，这使得工作时间相同的男女雇员在退休时的养老

11、金总额相同，由于女性的平均寿命比男性长，所以对男女雇员来说，均摊到每年的退休金不同，女性雇员的年退休金要少一些（女性寿命比男性长应属于前市场差别）。 最高法院界定歧视的标准与经济学家的标准不同，它强调的是：具有相同劳动生产率的退休者所得到的年退休金应该相同。这实际上要求雇主为女性雇员准备更多的退休金。,13,（2）曼哈特裁决会使得雇用女性的成本高于雇用男性（与女性劳动生产率相同）的成本,这种提高雇主雇用女性成本的做法会降低女性的就业量，因为它会提供一种用男工替代女工(或用资本替代女工)的激励。,14,第三节 劳动力市场歧视理论 section 3 labor market discrimina

12、tion theory,经济学家认为三种可能的歧视来源：Economists consider that there might be three sources for prejudice: 1、个人偏见 personal prejudice 2、先入为主的统计性歧视 statistical discrimination with preconception 3、存在某些非竞争性的劳动力市场力量some forces of the noncompetitive labor market,15,一、个人偏见模型personal-prejudice models 模型假设条件：Model ass

13、umptions a、假设雇主、顾客或雇员存在“偏好型口味”。Suppose that there is a preference existing in employers, customers and employees. b、假设为竞争性劳动力市场，单个厂商是“工资接受者”。Suppose that there is a competitive market where the single producer is a wage recipient .,16,1、雇主的歧视（Employer Discrimination） 假设雇主对具有某种特征的雇员有偏见，而顾客和作为潜在同事的雇员则

14、没有这种偏见。 Suppose that some employers have a taste to workers with some special characteristic, but customers and other employees do not have. 两种表现：Two styles of performance 雇主不愿意和某类雇员成员之间发生联系，雇主在任何可能的情况下都更愿意雇佣一些人，而不愿雇雇佣另一些人。Employers are unwilling to associate with one style of employees, in any case

15、, they prefer hiring some persons to the others. 职业隔离形式 The form of occupational segregation 假定雇员具有相同的生产率特征 Suppose that all employers have the same productivity,17,“雇主歧视模型”的构建Construction of employer discrimination model MRP代表某一劳动力市场上的所有工人的实际边际生产率 MRP represents the actual marginal productivity of

16、all workers in labor market. d代表被歧视成员的生产率被雇主从主观上进行贬值的程度 d represents the extent of depreciation on workers productivity which is made by employers subjectively. 雇主偏爱类别雇员（如男性）的市场均衡：Market equilibrium of employees prefered by employers, male for example. MRP=WM 雇主歧视类雇员（如女性）的市场均衡：Market equilibrium of

17、employees discriminated by employers, female for example. MRP-d=WF 或者 or MRP=d+WF 由于男性与女性的MRP相等，所以 because of the equality of the MRP between the male and the female, WM=WF+d WF=WM-d,18,被雇佣的妇女劳动力人数women hired,对歧视性雇主：工资率为WF，雇佣N0的人，均衡点为MRP=d+WF。支付工资区域为：0EFN0；利润区域为：AEFB 对非歧视（追求利润最大化）雇主：工资率为WF，雇佣N1的人，均衡

18、点为MRP=WF。支付工资区域为：0WFGN1；利润区域为：AEG 歧视性雇主放弃的利润为：BFG,19,雇主歧视模型存在的问题：problems in the employer discrimination model 歧视性雇主追求的是效用最大化而非利润最大化，如何生存？How will discriminatory employer survive as they place max utilities above profits? 可能的结果：Possible outcome 1、在完全竞争的产品市场上，非歧视性雇主会逐渐接管整个市场，从而歧视现象会逐渐消失。In competitiv

19、e market non-discriminatory employer will gradually take over the entire market ,and discrimination would gradually disappear. 2、拥有一定程度垄断力量的企业。他们最有机会同时又有动力去追求效用最大化。 Enterprises with some monopoly power have the best opportunity and motivity to pursuit utility maximization. 一项研究发现，在管制性的银行业中，相互竞争的银行在某

20、一地理区域中的数量越少，则女性雇员在该行业总就业人员中所占比例也就越小。One study found that in banking industry ,the less competing banks in one area ,the lower female proportion employed there .,20,2、顾客歧视（Customer Discrimination） 在有些场合下，顾客们可能偏好于让某类劳动力来提供服务，而在有些场合则偏好让另一类来提供服务。In some occasions, customers may prefer to allow certain t

21、ype of labor to provide services for them ,but in other occasions, prefer other labor. 企业需要迎合歧视性顾客需要，因此会雇用那些顾客偏爱雇员群体中的人来为自己工作。Enterprises need to meet discriminatory customers needs ,so they will hire workers from groups which customers prefer. 导致相互隔离的工作场所出现。 this lead to isolated workplace 雇主要向顾客偏好

22、的劳动力支付更高的工资，向顾客收取更高的价格。Employers will pay workers whom customers prefer higher, and charge these customers higher. 尽管部分顾客会被较高的价格所驱赶，从而改变自己的行为，但比例很小。因此，顾客歧视会继续存在下去。 some customers will be driven by higher prices and change their behavior ,but they only make up a very small proportion. So customers pr

23、ejudice will still survive,21,美国不同种族劳动力的报酬水平,西班牙裔妇女,西班牙裔男子,黑人妇女,黑人男子,白人妇女,白人男子,美国各种人口群体中15岁以上全日制工人的工资报酬 占白人男性工资报酬的百分比，1992年,$24 305 66%,$25 908 71%,$21 349 58%,$24 301 66%,$,19,627,54%,$,36 673,100,%,22,体育运动中的歧视行为,72%的NBA球员都是黑人，并且黑人球员和白人球员的平均薪水总体上是一样的，但是两项研究所发现的证据却表明，如果黑人运动员和白人运动员有着相同的技能，白人运动员将会比黑人运

24、动员多挣16%23%的薪水 篮球球迷中所存在的歧视可能至少能够解释其中的一部份原因，与上面相同的研究发现，用一位白人球员替换以为具有相同技能的黑人球员将会使上座率和收入大约提高16%23%. 此外，球队看来也会以另外一种方式来对球迷的偏见做出反应：在三个拥有白人居民比例最大的NBA城市中，39%的球员都是白人；而在三个白人居民比例最小的城市中，只有18%的球员是白人。,23,3、雇员歧视（Employee Discrimination） 占优势地位的雇员可能会避开那些使他们不得不以一种自己不喜欢的方式与另一类成员打交道的工作。Employees in dominant position mig

25、ht dislike working with one special kind of employees. 雇主为了留住这些优势雇员，必须向其支付一种工资奖励。Employers must pay a incentive wage to employees who are in dominant position in order to retain them. 解决方法：在隔离前提下进行雇佣，使不同人口群体背景中的雇员不需要彼此发生联系。例如可以按照职位名称来进行某种隔离。How to solve the problem: to hire employees under the premi

26、se of isolation, to make workers who have different background not contact with each other. For example , isolate them by job title. 研究发现：雇主通常只雇佣妇女或只雇佣男子来承担某一职位的工作。It is found that employers always only hire women or men for a particular post,24,4、统计性歧视Statistical discrimination 雇主在进行雇用时，能够获得的求职者与生产

27、率有关的信息只不过是教育水平、年龄、测试分数等群体特征。而这些群体特征只是实际生产率的一种不完全“指示器”。如果成为企业雇用决策的组成要素，则统计性歧视可能出现。When hiring, employers could only get job seekers information such as education, age, test scores, and so on. But these group identities are not a perfect “indicator” for real productivity. So statistical discrimination

28、 will happen if group identities are used in employing decision-making.,25,打字员例子：,有些高水平的打字员应聘者发挥不好，而有些水平不高的应聘者却发挥出了高水平。因此，水平高的人可能没被录用，水平差的人却被录用了。所以，运用群体资料可能会引起劳动力市场歧视。,26,该例子带来的一般性启示： 如果根据求职者的个人特征（测试分数、受教育程度、工作经验等）不能对其实际生产率做出完全的预测，则企业在作出雇佣决策时将会同时利用求职者个人的资料及其所属群体的群体资料来作为决策的依据。然而，在运用群体资料时却有可能引起劳动力市场歧视

29、，因为在这种情况下，具有相同的可衡量性生产率特征的人将会得到系统性的不同对待，这取决于当事人属于哪一群体。,27,把群体信息作为个人信息的一种补充会有副作用：there will be side effects if group information is used as a complement to personal information: 1、可能把群体特征强加给那些虽然属于某一群体但其自身的群体特征并不十分明显的那个人身上。 Group identities might be imposed to individuals who belong to the group but ha

30、ve unclear identity of this group. 如：工作生涯较长且不会出现的妇女 测试成绩差于实际工作水平的考生 家庭贫困无法上大学但能力强的高中毕业生 For example: women with a long working life and without career break. Candidates who fail in test but do be efficient at real job. High school graduates who can not go to university because of family poverty but

31、really own capacity for the work . 2、同一群体中的每一成员之间的相似性越差，则运用群体所带来的成本就越高。The worse the similarity among members, the higher cost for employers when they perform statistical discrimination,28,二、非竞争性歧视模型 Non-competitive discrimination model 1、拥挤效应Crowding effect 一些人认为：职业隔离是为了在某些特定行业中降低工资而故意采取的拥挤政策所造成的一种

32、后果。It is considered that occupational segregation is a consequence of the crowded policy which is adopted deliberately to cause lower wages in some specific industries. 图示，见课本p231。,29,对一些现象的解释：The interpretation of some phenomena （1）厂商利润最大化行为会逐渐消除任何工资差别。 Firms profit-maximizing behavior will gradual

33、ly eliminate any wage differential.,妇女人为挤进 某些特定工作,假定男性与女性有相同生产率：Assume that the male and the female have the same productivity,工资降低， 对其他企业 吸引力更强,更多企业在其 他岗位雇用女 性替代男性,行业拥挤消失 工资差别消失,Women squeeze to specific field man-madely,Lower wages, more attraction to other firms,More firms hire more women to alte

34、rnative men.,Industry crowded disappears; The wage gap disappears,30,（2）只要拥挤现象或职业隔离尚未得到消除，说明市场上仍然存在着竞争性的人口群体。（结果）但为什么在一开始时会存在这样一些非竞争性人口群体？It is inevitable that there will be competitive segments of the population if crowding phenomenon or occupational segregation have not yet been eliminated. But wh

35、y did non-competitive segment of the population appear in the beginning? 社会习俗 Social customs 男性与女性存在先天或后天能力的差异（农业社会、工业社会）Innate or acquired differences between male and female (Agricultural society, Industrial society) 男性和女性对买方垄断雇主的供给曲线有所不同 Difference between men and women to the supply curve aim at

36、 Monopsony employers.,31,买方垄断企业的劳动力供给曲线 Labor supply curve of monopsony firms,32,2、双重劳动力市场dual labor market model 将整体劳动力市场看成是被分割开的两大非竞争性部门：主要部门和从属部门。 The overall labor market is separated into two non-competitive sectors: the primary sector and the secondary sector. 主要部门：高工资、稳定的就业、良好的工作环境、发展机会 the p

37、rimary sector : high wages, stable employment, a good working environment, development opportunities 从属部门：低工资、不稳定就业、较差的工作条件、没有发展机会 the secondary sector : low wages, unstable employment , a bad working environment, no development opportunities 关键点：两大部门之间流动非常有限 The point: limited mobility between the

38、two sectors. 所以：大部分弱势就业群体成员都是在从属部门中就业的，导致了长期延续下来的歧视（观念的形成） so, most members of disadvantaged groups work in the secondary sector, and this lead to discrimination inherited from the history.,33,局限性：没有解释真正引起妇女和外来劳动力成员被界定到从属工作上的原因何在。Limitation: It does not explain the real reason why women and migrant

39、labor have to work in secondary sector. 贡献：再次证明了不能指望依靠自然的市场力量解除歧视，歧视现象正是由自然的市场力量本身所产生的（劳动力市场中确实存在两类部门）。 Contribution: Prove again that it is impossible to lift discrimination by spontaneous market forces, for discrimination is caused by the market forces itself. (the two sectors really exist in labo

40、r market ),34,3、与搜寻成本有关的买方独家垄断Monopsony connected with searching Cost 知识回顾：Knowledge Review 买方垄断企业：产品市场上的完全竞争者，劳动力市场上的垄断者 monopoly enterprise: perfect competitor in product market; Monopolist in labor market. 劳动要素使用原则： principles for the using of labor factor MRP=MP*MR 其中，MR等于产品的价格 MRP represent pri

41、ce of product. 劳动的边际收益(Marginal revenue of labor)：MRP=VMP=MP*P 即劳动的边际收益等于劳动的边际产品价值The marginal revenue of labor is equal to the value of marginal product of labor 使用最优劳动数量的原则为The principle of using the optimal number of labor is：VMP=MLC，无需求曲线,35,由于存在雇主歧视，妇女和外来劳动力成员的工作搜寻成本会上升。搜寻成本的存在会导致单个雇主面临向右上倾斜的劳动

42、力供给曲线，即MLC曲线上升到W曲线以上。从而引发雇主的买方独家垄断行为。Because of the employer discrimination, the job searching costs of women and migrant labor will go up . The existence of searching costs will cause the single employer to face a labor supply curve which slopes to the upper right . It means that the curve MLC will

43、 rise above the curve W, and results in monopsony.,36,雇用量,雇用量,EM,EF,WM,WF,MRPL,MRPL,SM,SF,(MEL)M,(MEL)F,劳动供给曲线越陡直，工资和边际劳动成本之间的差距会越大。因此，与那些具有更为扁平的劳动力供给曲线的工人群体相比，劳动力供给曲线越是陡直的工人群体所获得的工资相对预期边际收益产品而言就显得越低。The steeper the labor supply curve, the bigger the gap between wages and the marginal labor costs. S

44、o compared with the workers who have a more flat labor supply curve, the ones who have steeper labor supply curve will get lower wages.,The amount of employment,37,较高的工作搜寻成本意味着：what does a high searching cost means? 单个妇女和外来劳动力成员找到那种能够最大限度的利用他们能力的雇主机会是很小的。 The opportunity for single woman and migrant

45、 labor to find a employers using their abilities maximumly is small . 即使是在范围界定得很窄的职业群体中，与那些工作匹配质量较好的男性劳动力或其他优势劳动群体相比，妇女和外来劳动力成员也仍然会是那种被认为生产率较低从而获得工资较少的人。 Even in the range of occupational groups defined narrowly, compared with male labor force who match better work ,or compared with other advantaged

46、 labor groups, women and migrant labor are still be considered as ones with low productivity and wages.,38,4、串谋行为 conspiracy model 理论：雇主们彼此联合起来，合谋对妇女劳动力或外来劳动力进行压制，从而制造一种被压制群体不得不接受买方独家垄断工资的局面。 Theory: Employers unite with each other to suppress woman and migrant labor ,so the suppressed groups have t

47、o accept monopsony wages. 串谋动机：如果偏见能够得以延续下去，雇主就能够增加自己的利润。同时，歧视在工厂制造的对立也转移了工人对不良工作条件的关注。 Conspiracy motive: Employers could be able to increase their profits if the bias can be allowed to continue. At the same time ,discrimination caused in factories could transfer concerns about the bad working cond

48、itions. 局限性：并非所有的雇主都能遵守串谋所形成的协议。破坏协议者会雇到便宜的工人，提高自己的利润水平。因此，如果违背协议者不能以某种方式得到应有的惩罚，则串谋必然破产。 limitation: not all employers can comply with the conspiracy agreement . The one who break the agreement could hire cheaper workers to increase the profit. So, the conspiracy is doomed to failure if the violato

49、r is not punished in a certain way.,39,三、对歧视理论的评价 Evaluation to the discrimination theory 各种理论表明，当前劳动市场歧视是各种阻碍竞争者的力量或阻碍劳动力市场力量向竞争性力量进行调整的因素所造成的一种结果 Various theories indicate that the current labor market discrimination is a result caused by the adjustment between forces hindering competition and for

50、ces upholding competition. 歧视的成本是极高的，如歧视性雇主的退出，统计性歧视下对某些雇主的惩罚 The cost of discrimination is extremely high 消除歧视同样要付出较大成本The The cost of rejecting discrimination is also extremely high 歧视之所以持续存在，两个原因： two reasons for the persistence of discrimination 由于非竞争性力量或非竞争性动机导致 caused by non-competitive force

51、or non-competitive motive 劳动力市场向竞争状态调整速度过于缓慢 the speed of labor markets adjustment is too much slow,40,第四节 政府对劳动力市场歧视的管制 section 4 government control to labor market discrimination,一、美国消除歧视的政策 federal antidiscrimination legislations 1、1963公平工资法 the Equal Pay Act of 1963 规定对于运用相同技术并在相同工作条件下完成工作的男性和女性

52、分别支付不同工资的做法是非法的。 This legislation had forbidden pay differences between men and women “ for equal work on jobs the performance of which requires equal skill, effort, and responsibility, and which are performed under similar working conditions.” 不足： （1）对雇用机会均等和晋升机会均等没有进行更多的规定 No more rules about equa

53、l hiring and promotion opportunities （2）试图压制能够帮助妇女获得更多就业机会的那些市场机制发挥作用 Suppress the functions of market mechanism which could help women to get more employment opportunities,41,2、民权法案第7章 the Civil Rights Act Title VII 规定：任何雇主“因为任何个人的种族、肤色、宗教信仰、性别或祖籍来源等原因而拒绝雇用之火解雇之，或在工资、待遇、工作条件或就业优惠权利等方面对个人进行歧视”均属于违法行

54、为。 It declares that it is unlawful to refuse to hire or discharge any individual, or otherwise to discriminate against any individual with respect to his compensation, terms, conditions, or privileges of employment because of that individuals race, color, religion, sex, or national origin. 不足：inadeq

55、uate （1）没有追溯效力 a lack of retrospective effect （2）允许有例外情况 allow exceptions （3）允许雇主在工资和其他雇用条件方面区别对待 allow dealing with different workers in different wages and other sides （4）没有提出任何促使他们保证向某一人口群体提供优先对待的要求 did not require any promise to provide priority treatment for certain group,42,3、资历制度 Seniority sy

56、stem 把资历做为分配晋升机会时的一个因素考虑，在衰退时，雇主常按照资历长短相反的顺序来解雇雇员，资历最浅的雇员最先遭到解雇。 Consider seniority as one factor of promotion. During the slump, employees should be fired according to the opposite direction of the length of qualifications, in other words, the junior will be fired first. 美国司法实践中回避了资历制度可能存在的问题。 Pote

57、ntial problems of seniority system are parried in the judicial practice of the United States,43,4、可比价值 comparable worth 由于男性与女性很少是真正的“同工”，所以有些人支持对具有“可比价值”的工作支付相同的工资。 Instead of arguing for “equal pay for equal work”, someone argues for the broader idea of “equal pay for equal work” 一种经济资源的价值如何确定？ Ho

58、w to determine the true worth of an economic resource ? 价格由供求双方的力量决定。Price is governed by the strength of the supply and demand . 经济学家往往倾向于用市场力量来判断劳动力的价格 Economists tend to judge the price of labor by market forces. 总的来说，可比价值理论是利用“专家”来根据各种工作所需要的知识、解决问题的能力、责任大小、工作的物理条件，及其他各种可能的特点来分别给它们分配点数的一种政策。 Comparable worth theory is a policy which distribute incomes according to