研究生学术英语写作第二部分.ppt

第二部分: 学术英语写作 第一单元: 学术写作的六个思虑因素 学术写作是多种思虑因素的产物：写作对象、写作目的、组成结构、文体特征、表达连贯、宣讲 1.写作对象 要想写作成功，你需要了解读者对你的期盼是什么以及之前读者对此主题知识的了解有多少 Key to Exercise A: P.109 Text 1 is targeting an educated, but not highly specialized audience; while Text B is directed at experts. Text A provides quite a lot of background,material and is careful to avoid too much technical vocabulary. Text 2 jumps right into the topic and employs quite a lot of technical terminology that most of us are not familiar with. 2. 写作目的与策略 如果写作对象对主题了解少于作者，作者的目的是教育性的。反之，则是展示作者对主题的熟悉性、专业性及知识性。 Keys to Exercise B: P.110 1. Generally educated and familiar with the topic, but not highly specialized.,2. That the readers have some notion of what an unauthorized settlement is and the kind of amenities they lack; perhaps also that the readers understand the relationship among the government, policies on housing and access to basic amenities. 3. To highlight a housing problem in Delhi, which also happens to be a common problem in other countries. 4. The author uses the word challenge to introduce the problem.,5. This effort refers to the argument that there is a need for governmental policies to address the problem. 6. The author believes that it may help to alleviate some of the housing problem. 3. 组成结构 问题解决方法模式的四部分： (1) 描述情况 (2) 甄别问题 (3) 描述解决方法 (4) 评估解决方法,Key to Exercise C: P.111 12句： 描述情况 34句： 甄别问题 56句： 描述解决方法 7句： 评估解决方法 4. 文体特征 学术写作的突出特征就是选用更加正式的词汇 1) 动词 学术英语写作中通常使用单一动词,Key to Exercise D：P.111 1. brought on - caused 2. looking into - investigating 3. figure out - determine 4. come up with - develop 5. make up - constitute 6. get rid of - eliminate 7. gone up to - reached 8. keep up - maintain 9. gone down - decreased 10. looks over - reviews,Key to Exercise E: P.112 1. created / developed 2. encountered / faced 3. raised / introduced 4. appeared / emerged 5. examined / investigated 2) 名词与其它词性：选择较正规的选项 写作中应使用更为正规的词汇,Key to Exercise F: P.112 1. an integral part of 2. nearly 3. considerable 4. obtained 5. increasing 6. intensified 7. have insufficient 8. rarely happen 9. enlarged to facilitate loading and unloading,3) 正规的语法风格 (1) 一般来讲避免使用略缩词 (2) 使用更为适宜的正规的否定形式 (3) 限制使用多个词连用的表达法 (4) 避免向读者说“你” (5) 使用直接引语时需谨慎 (6) 将副词放于动词词组内 (7) 考虑是否该使用割裂不定式 (8)目的是为了有效地使用词汇,Key to Exercise G：P.113 1. This model can be used to analyze the effects of several parameter changes. 2. Coffee prices have fallen for many reasons. 3. The difference between these two approaches to designing underground subway station can clearly be seen.,4. Recent research has shown that the arms are commonly used for protection during a fall to the ground 5. To date, no comprehensive study has examined the role of smiling in gaining the initial trust of individual. 6. Some studies have concluded that bamboo could be more widely used than it is now as a construction material.,7. These special tax laws have been enacted in six mid western states: Illinois, Iowa, Indiana, Ohio, Michigan, and Minnesota. 8. Little research has been done on the use of oil palm shell as coarse aggregate in the production of concrete. 5. 表达连贯 Key to Exercise H：P. 113 For example; because; because of this; so that; morethan; However,1) 连接词与词组 Key to Exercise I: P.114 1. sentence 2: For example sentence 4: While / Although sentence 6: therefore ; hence / thus 2. sentence 2: however ; thus sentence 3: while / whereas sentence 4: Although / Even though sentence 6: For example,2) this + 总结性词汇 Key to Exercise J: P.115 1. b. d. 2. a. 3. d. Key to Exercise K: P.115 1. view 2. finding 3. problem 4. process 5. disruption,6. situation 7. method / approach 8. conclusion 9. phenomenon 10. trend / tendency 6. 宣讲 1）考虑你的书面文字材料的总体格式 2） 校对疏忽大意所造成的语法错误 3） 即便是你已经检查了你的文本材料，也要检 查其中的词汇拼写错误,第二单元: 学术写作的两个基本结构 （1）泛论-特指(GS) （2）问题-过程-解决方法 1.泛论-特指文本写作 GS文本通常以下列一种形式开始 1. 简短或拓展定义 2. 对比或比较定义 3. 一般化或目标性陈述 4. 事实陈述,Key to Exercise A: P.129 1. 1) Meetings of tourism and its importance a. Size of meetings b. Locations of meetings 2) Importance of meetings tourism in postindustrial urban renewal a. Growth in the meetings tourism market in the U.S. b. Growth in international conferences c. Importance of meetings tourism in comparison to leisure tourism in Europe,2. This question usually generates some debate, but here is one possibility. Statement 1）could be a new sentence (7), while the point in Statement 2) could be incorporated into sentence (8) after the citation. Sentence (8) could then be split. The latter part of the sentence, after making, could be rewritten as a new sentence (9). 3. Presumably there are other definitions for meetings tourism, and this is the one that the authors have chosen to use.,1) 正式的句子定义 (1) 正式的句子定义要素 常见的超级坐标词/类标词有： technique, method, process, device, system (2) 删除 在下列情况下，你可以减少限制性关系代词 A. 定语从句仅有关系代词、be动词、一个或多 个介词短语 B. 定语从句由被动态动词加上一些额外的信息 C. 定语从句含有关系代词、以-ble结尾的形容词 和额外的信息,(3) 词或词形变换 在下列情况下，你可以减少关系代词 A. 定语从句含有动词have。这时关系代词和ave 都省略掉，用with代替。 B. 定义从句含有主动态状态动词。(这时关系代 词省略掉，动词变成-ing形式；但be和have除 外。) C. 定语从句含有的情态助动词不可省略 Key to Exercise B: P.130 1. metal that is often used metal often used 2. device that is capable of device capable of 3. roof which is on top of roof on top of,4. precipitation which results from precipitation resulting from 5. This sentence cannot be reduced. 6. flute that is pitched an octave higher - flute pitched an octave higher 7. a process that involves the selective transport a process involving the selective transport 8. a celestial body which has approximately the same mass a celestial body with approximately the same mass D. 关系代词前有介词时，这类定语从句不删减 E. Whereby常用于正式写作中来代替by which, by means of which, through which,Key to Exercise C: P.130 1. with 2. in 3. to 4. from 5. in 6. around 7. in 8. in F. 在定义中不要使用when 和where,2) 拓展定义 拓展定义通常以一个泛论开始 - 一个句子定义，然后随着额外信息的给出变得更加具体。 Key to Exercise D: P.131 1. components and type 2. example 3. history 4. application 拓展定义也可包括过程分析或因果及其它特色如罕见性、成本 Key to Exercise E: P.131 4-1-7-2-5-6-3,3) 竞争性定义 竞争性定义承认一些不同的定义，然后向读者陈述清晰你所采纳的定义。 4) 对比性定义 Key to Exercise F: P.132 The former deals with a right that grantswhile the latter is concerned with a copyright a form of protection that Key to Exercise G: P.132 The whole passage seems like neither a competing nor a contrastive definition. Instead, its an extended definition.,5) 比较性定义 比较定义基本上有两类： 1) 呈现一个概念是如何随着时间的流逝而变化 的这样一种史实陈述。 2) 呈现对当代各位专家是怎样不同地看待此概 念所做的一个全面性的评述。 Key to Exercise H: P.133 1. Sentences 4, 7, and 10. 2. Present tense. The theories are “timeless.“ Although they were formulated in the past, they were still widely accepted today.,3. S5: In other words S6: therefore S7: on the other hand S8: for example S9: In other words S16: For instance The purpose is either for explanation / exemplification or to indicate contrasts among the competing theories. 4. There are a number of possibilities: perhaps a discussion of the writers own theory of humor in which flaws in the other theories are presented. Perhaps an expansion of one of the theories; most likely an analysis of a humorous situation play, hook, movie, or something else), using each of the competing theories or demonstrating how they do not always work.,5. The text, is actually a general review of different theories. It is mostly a GS text, but it doesnt get more and more specific with each sentence. The text reaches a particular level of specificity and then remains at that level. It doesnt provide very specific detail for each of the theories. 6. No. It simply says that modern theories are variations of old ones, and it only specifically mentions superiority theory and incongruity theory. (There is no complicated motive behind this. Chris simply had exhausted all her resources and did not, look for modern versions of all the theories.),7. If Chris expressed a preference, it was not intentional. Note the absence of evaluative language. However, she has a strong preference for incongruity theory. If she had wanted to express a preference, she would have discussed the incongruity theory last, rather than in the middle. Discussing the preferred point of view in final position is a common rhetorical strategy.,2. 问题-过程-解决方法 泛论-具体文本写作通常是描述性的、说明性的比较而言，问题-解决方法文本通常更具论证性评估性。 1) 问题-解决方法文本结构 Key to Exercise I: P.134 1. No answer is given. 2. Sentences 1, 4, 10, and 14 are important for the four parts of the text. Most students feel that these are most important. However, we can also note that the major claim or conclusion is given in sentence 13.,3. He states that there is a problem with the databases used in Garfields study and then provides support for this assertion. Next, he gives a very concrete example of a serious weakness the inconsistency regarding Arabic-language science journals. This example should raise some doubts with the reader, making it apparent that there is a problem. (Note the general-specific movement in the paragraph.),4. Considering that this is a very short text, the amount of detail is appropriate. If it were longer, then it would make sense to critique the databases and the methodology used to arrive at the 80% figure. The number of examples is dependent on the length of the text. Certainly one more would be nice. Can you supply one?,5. There are several examples of hedging here, particularly in the second and third paragraphs. But the number of hedges should not be equated with the level of uncertainty. Notice that in the second paragraph, we have hedged generaliz-ations, but in the third there are several unhedged statements of results for single studies. Nevertheless, overall, the two paragraphs seem similar in terms of the level of conviction.,6. Garfield 1983; Najjar 1988;Throgmartin 1980; Velho and Krige 1984; Warren and Newhill 1978. All but one of these citations are twenty or more years old. Given that changes in language policy are likely to be evolving, the reference list looks rather dated. 7. Users may like to consider issues such as which languages are acceptable in journals or which languages are used for abstracts. 8. Sentence (5) typically; (6) predominantly; (9) consistently; (10) considerably,2) 程序与过程 经典的问题-解决方法文本本质上一般更具技术层面，而且可能会描绘程序与过程 Key to Exercise J: P.135 1. The situation and the problem are presented in the first paragraph, while in the first sample they spread over two different paragraphs. In contrast to the previous text, the situation requires little explanation only one sentence is necessary. Also the nature of the problem is clearer here than in the previous text. We can all imagine the seriousness of the problems associated with the lack of fresh water. A one-sentence paragraph is not a good idea, so it makes sense to continue the paragraph with a discussion of the problem.,2. Nets are erected water droplets of the fog are collected by the nets water flows from the nets to troughs water flows through filters into storage tanks water is chemically treated water flows to households. 3. Present tense is used because this is a repeatable process. 4. is now being tested, are attached, are trapped, is then piped, is chemically treated.,5. The progressive is appropriate here because the testing is being done at the time of writing. From the authors perspective, it is in progress and has not been completed. Although the progressive is rare in scientific academic English, it can often be used to describe contemporary change (e.g., “Scholars are beginning to change their ideas about. . .“) The verb to be can indeed be used in the progressive.,6. now, approximately, when, then, chemically, finally. Sentence 4: this absence of rainfall Sentence 14: this collection system Both of these occur in the final sentence of their respective paragraphs. They serve to summarize the main point of the paragraph. 8. There is nothing fancy or elegant here. The solution is “announced“: “One interesting solution to this problem is . . .“,9. Students tend to select the following information. the dimensions of the nets the trough material the storage link materials and dimensions the brand name of the netting the duration of the fog season the time needed to construct the system 10. A new paragraph could be added under the description of the process. Adding this paragraph would also necessitate a change in the first sentence of the final paragraph to ensure good How. 11. The information about cost could be added between sentences 15 and 16.,3) 语言聚焦：解决方法中的动词与施动者 (1) 被动语态 被动语态在过程描述中常常起着很重要的作用 在正式的学术写作中，我们会更多地看到 by + 过程 或 by + 非人为施动者 的句型 Key to Exercise K: P.137 1. Bacteria in meat can be killed by a brief but intense period of radiation between butchering and packaging. 2. Possible harmful effects of drugs can be reduced by carrying out carefully designed, large-scale clinical trials.,3. One class of rocks is formed by the gradual accumulation of mineral particles at the bottom of a body of water. 4. Information on political preferences can he obtained by questioning passersby in a busy public area. 5. Sequences of events at archaeological sites can he established by identifying the distinct layers of an excavation site and cataloging which items were discovered in which layers.,6. Cultures are partly preserved by continuing ceremonial and ritualistic traditions such as those surrounding marriage or the birth of a child that have helped to define them. 7. Changes in land use can be detected by comparing images taken by satellite over a period of time. 8. The spread of infectious diseases can be controlled by vaccinations and by encouraging frequent hand washing.,(2) 在过程描述中观点的过渡 通过组合或连接动词短语可获得良好的观点过渡 Key to Exercise L: P.137 (1) Once the bird has been brought to rehabilitation center, basic procedures are followed. (2) After the bird is sedated, if necessary, it is examined to detect broken bones, cuts, or other injuries. (3) Oil is flushed from its eyes and intestines. (4) Heavily oiled birds are then wiped with absorbent cloths to remove patches of oil. (5) Stomach-coating medicines may be administer-ed orally to prevent additional absorption of oil inside the birds stomach. (6) When the bird is warmed, it is placed in a quiet area. (7) Curtains are hung around the area to limit the birds contact with people.,(3) 分词 Key to Exercise M: P.138 1. The oil is skimmed from the surface by using a boom and then pumped into a tank for recycling. 2. After being harvested, the grapes are crushed to release the pulp and seed and then fermented for three weeks. 3. First, the glass is cut to size and inspected to determine if it has any imperfections. It is then heated to over 600oC and cooled in a step known as quenching.,4. A vessel taken from the leg is grafted to the aorta and the coronary artery beyond the narrowed area, thus allowing blood to flow to the heart muscle. 5. When water from rain or melted snow percolates into the ground through cracks, it is heated by the underlying rocks to temperatures well above the boiling point. The water does not boil but, rather, becomes superheated and pressurized, causing it to eventually burst out of the ground in an explosive steam eruption.,(4) 过程描述中的主动语态 许多自然过程都会在直接人为干预的境况外发生，这种情况下常常使用主动语态，或者依据情况而定将主动、被动混合使用。 Key to Exercise N: P.138 1. Situation: sentences 1-2 Problem: sentences 3-9 Solution: sentences 10-11 Evaluation: sentence 12 The “problem section“ receives the greatest treatment, because the detail is necessary to understand the problem. The nature of the problem (why it is happening) is not trans-parent, as it is in the “Clouds and Fog“ text.,2. Sentence (6): in response Sentence (7): thus Sentence (8): but 3. Investigations are under way and have not been completed. 4. The agent is unnecessary. Passive voice here helps keep the focus on recovery. 5. If sentence (2) said, “They are the marine equivalents of terrestrial rainforests,“ we could consider this as accepted fact. As it stands in the original, the authors are being cautious about making such a strong claim.,(5) 因果关系 (6) -ing结果状语从句 (7) 间接疑问句 Key to Exercise O: P.139 1. The question remains whether it is possible to develop a reliable earthquake warning system. 2. Current studies provide little information on how this policy is being implemented in rural areas. 3. We need to know what precautions are being taken to prevent the spread of the disease.,There is some question as to whether the current crisis can eventually be overcome. It has not been determined how these policies are likely to affect small businesses. 6. It might also be of interest to investigate to what extent persistence is a major factor in graduate student success. 7. Another issue raised by this study is whether and to what extent poverty and climate are linked. 8. The process uses the CPU power it needs, depending on what it is doing and what other processes are running.,9. The research investigated whether time is money 10. It is unclear what the optimal level of government debt is. 间接引语是引入问题的一个方法，其次它也是对解决方式进行评估的一个方法。 另外一种引入问题的方法就是使用转折意义的连接词。 (8) 引入解决方法,第三单元: 数据信息解读 在许多学科中，数据信息都是以图表、图形、数据统计图或非口头图示的方式展示出来。 1. 陈述的力度 为数据找到正确的陈述力度，然后以适当的方式将你的陈述内容排序。在多数情况下，排序都是从泛论-具体。 Keys to Exercise A: P.145 b-e-d-a-c-f 力度依次递减 Keys to Exercise B: P.146 1. The commentary starts in Sentence 3.,2. Sentence 1: definition; Sentence 2: statement of the problem. 3. In many ways, yes; but note that the author offers no perfect solution to reducing the number of virus infect-ion, even though she emphasizes the importance of antivirus programs. 4. Lots of possibilities here: the formal vocabulary; the absence of reference to people (e.g. “concern over“ in sentence 2 ); the uses of the passive; nonfinite -ing clauses; sentence complexity, especially in sentences 4 and 6; and so