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胡壮麟语言学教程(修订版)测试题CHAPTER1INTRODUCTIONSTOLINGUISTICSICHOOSETHEBESTANSWER201LANGUAGEISASYSTEMOFARBITRARYVOCALSYMBOLSUSEDFORHUMAN_ACONTACTBCOMMUNICATIONCRELATIONDCOMMUNITY2WHICHOFTHEFOLLOWINGWORDSISENTIRELYARBITRARYATREEBTYPEWRITERCCRASHDBANG3THEFUNCTIONOFTHESENTENCE“WATERBOILSAT100DEGREESCENTIGRADE”IS_ERROGATIVEBDIRECTIVECINFORMATIVEDPERFORMATIVE4INCHINESEWHENSOMEONEBREAKSABOWLORAPLATETHEHOSTORTHEPEOPLEPRESENTARELIKELYTOSAY“碎碎(岁岁)平安”ASAMEANSOFCONTROLLINGTHEFORCESWHICHTHEYBELIEVESFEELMIGHTAFFECTTHEIRLIVESWHICHFUNCTIONSDOESITPERFORMAINTERPERSONALBEMOTIVECPERFORMATIVEDRECREATIONAL5WHICHOFTHEFOLLOWINGPROPERTYOFLANGUAGEENABLESLANGUAGEUSERSTOOVERCOMETHEBARRIERSCAUSEDBYTIMEANDPLACE,DUETOTHISFEATUREOFLANGUAGE,SPEAKERSOFALANGUAGEAREFREETOTALKABOUTANYTHINGINANYSITUATIONATRANSFERABILITYBDUALITYCDISPLACEMENTDARBITRARINESS6STUDYTHEFOLLOWINGDIALOGUEWHATFUNCTIONDOESITPLAYACCORDINGTOTHEFUNCTIONSOFLANGUAGEANICEDAY,ISNTITRIGHTIREALLYENJOYTHESUNLIGHTAEMOTIVEBPHATICCPERFORMATIVEDINTERPERSONAL7_REFERSTOTHEACTUALREALIZATIONOFTHEIDEALLANGUAGEUSERSKNOWLEDGEOFTHERULESOFHISLANGUAGEINUTTERANCESAPERFORMANCEBCOMPETENCECLANGUEDPAROLE8WHENADOGISBARKING,YOUASSUMEITISBARKINGFORSOMETHINGORATSOMEONETHATEXISTSHEARANDNOWITCOULDNTBESORROWFULFORSOMELOSTLOVEORLOSTBONETHISINDICATESTHEDESIGNFEATUREOF_ACULTURALTRANSMISSIONBPRODUCTIVITYCDISPLACEMENTDDUALITY9_ANSWERSSUCHQUESTIONSASHOWWEASINFANTSACQUIREOURFIRSTLANGUAGEAPSYCHOLINGUISTICSBANTHROPOLOGICALLINGUISTICSCSOCIOLINGUISTICSDAPPLIEDLINGUISTICS10_DEALSWITHLANGUAGEAPPLICATIONTOOTHERFIELDS,PARTICULARLYEDUCATIONALINGUISTICTHEORYBPRACTICALLINGUISTICSCAPPLIEDLINGUISTICSDCOMPARATIVELINGUISTICSIIDECIDEWHETHERTHEFOLLOWINGSTATEMENTSARETRUEORFALSE1011LANGUAGEISAMEANSOFVERBALCOMMUNICATIONTHEREFORE,THECOMMUNICATIONWAYUSEDBYTHEDEAFMUTEISNOTLANGUAGE12LANGUAGECHANGEISUNIVERSAL,ONGOINGANDARBITRARY13SPEAKINGISTHEQUICKESTANDMOSTEFFICIENTWAYOFTHEHUMANCOMMUNICATIONSYSTEMS14LANGUAGEISWRITTENBECAUSEWRITINGISTHEPRIMARYMEDIUMFORALLLANGUAGES15WEWEREALLBORNWITHTHEABILITYTOACQUIRELANGUAGE,WHICHMEANSTHEDETAILSOFANYLANGUAGESYSTEMCANBEGENETICALLYTRANSMITTED16ONLYHUMANBEINGSAREABLETOCOMMUNICATE17FDESAUSSURE,WHOMADETHEDISTINCTIONBETWEENLANGUEANDPAROLEINTHEEARLY20THCENTURY,WASAFRENCHLINGUIST18ASTUDYOFTHEFEATURESOFTHEENGLISHUSEDINSHAKESPEARESTIMEISANEXAMPLEOFTHEDIACHRONICSTUDYOFLANGUAGE19SPEECHANDWRITINGCAMEINTOBEINGATMUCHTHESAMETIMEINHUMANHISTORY20ALLTHELANGUAGESINTHEWORLDTODAYHAVEBOTHSPOKENANDWRITTENFORMSIIIFILLINTHEBLANKS1021LANGUAGE,BROADLYSPEAKING,ISAMEANSOF_COMMUNICATION22INANYLANGUAGEWORDSCANBEUSEDINNEWWAYSTOMEANNEWTHINGSANDCANBECOMBINEDINTOINNUMERABLESENTENCESBASEDONLIMITEDRULESTHISFEATUREISUSUALLYTERMED_23LANGUAGEHASMANYFUNCTIONSWECANUSELANGUAGETOTALKABOUTITSELFTHISFUNCTIONIS_24THEORYTHATPRIMITIVEMANMADEINVOLUNTARYVOCALNOISESWHILEPERFORMINGHEAVYWORKHASBEENCALLEDTHE_THEORY25LINGUISTICSISTHE_STUDYOFLANGUAGE26MODERNLINGUISTICSIS_INTHESENSETHATTHELINGUISTTRIESTODISCOVERWHATLANGUAGEISRATHERTHANLAYDOWNSOMERULESFORPEOPLETOOBSERVE27ONEGENERALPRINCIPLEOFLINGUISTICANALYSISISTHEPRIMACYOF_OVERWRITING28THEDESCRIPTIONOFALANGUAGEASITCHANGESTHROUGHTIMEISA_STUDY29SAUSSUREPUTFORWARDTWOIMPORTANTCONCEPTS_REFERSTOTHEABSTRACTLINGUISTICSYSTEMSHAREDBYALLMEMBERSOFASPEECHCOMMUNITY30LINGUISTICPOTENTIALISSIMILARTOSAUSSURESLANGUEANDCHOMSKYS_CHAPTER2SPEECHSOUNDSICHOOSETHEBESTANSWER201PITCHVARIATIONISKNOWNAS_WHENITSPATTERNSAREIMPOSEDONSENTENCESAINTONATIONBTONECPRONUNCIATIONDVOICE2CONVENTIONALLYA_ISPUTINSLASHES/AALLOPHONEBPHONECPHONEMEDMORPHEME3ANASPIRATEDP,ANUNASPIRATEDPANDANUNRELEASEDPARE_OFTHEPPHONEMEAANALOGUESBTAGMEMESCMORPHEMESDALLOPHONES4THEOPENINGBETWEENTHEVOCALCORDSISSOMETIMESREFERREDTOAS_AGLOTTISBVOCALCAVITYCPHARYNXDUVULA5THEDIPHTHONGSTHATAREMADEWITHAMOVEMENTOFTHETONGUETOWARDSTHECENTERAREKNOWNAS_DIPHTHONGSAWIDEBCLOSINGCNARROWDCENTERING6APHONEMEISAGROUPOFSIMILARSOUNDSCALLED_AMINIMALPAIRSBALLOMORPHSCPHONESDALLOPHONES7WHICHBRANCHOFPHONETICSCONCERNSTHEPRODUCTIONOFSPEECHSOUNDSAACOUSTICPHONETICSBARTICULATORYPHONETICSCAUDITORYPHONETICSDNONEOFTHEABOVE8WHICHONEISDIFFERENTFROMTHEOTHERSACCORDINGTOPLACESOFARTICULATIONANBMCBDP9WHICHVOWELISDIFFERENTFROMTHEOTHERSACCORDINGTOTHECHARACTERISTICSOFVOWELSAIBUCEDI10WHATKINDOFSOUNDSCANWEMAKEWHENTHEVOCALCORDSAREVIBRATINGAVOICELESSBVOICEDCGLOTTALSTOPDCONSONANTIIDECIDEWHETHERTHEFOLLOWINGSTATEMENTSARETRUEORFALSE1011SUPRASEGMENTALPHONOLOGYREFERSTOTHESTUDYOFPHONOLOGICALPROPERTIESOFUNITSLARGERTHANTHESEGMENTPHONEME,SUCHASSYLLABLE,WORDANDSENTENCE12THEAIRSTREAMPROVIDEDBYTHELUNGSHASTOUNDERGOANUMBEROFMODIFICATIONTOACQUIRETHEQUALITYOFASPEECHSOUND13TWOSOUNDSAREINFREEVARIATIONWHENTHEYOCCURINTHESAMEENVIRONMENTANDDONOTCONTRAST,NAMELY,THESUBSTITUTIONOFONEFORTHEOTHERDOESNOTPRODUCEADIFFERENTWORD,BUTMERELYADIFFERENTPRONUNCIATION14PISAVOICEDBILABIALSTOP15ACOUSTICPHONETICSISCONCERNEDWITHTHEPERCEPTIONOFSPEECHSOUNDS16ALLSYLLABLESMUSTHAVEANUCLEUSBUTNOTALLSYLLABLESCONTAINANONSETANDACODA17WHENPUREVOWELSORMONOPHTHONGSAREPRONOUNCED,NOVOWELGLIDESTAKEPLACE18ACCORDINGTOTHELENGTHORTENSENESSOFTHEPRONUNCIATION,VOWELSCANBEDIVIDEDINTOTENSEVSLAXORLONGVSSHORT19RECEIVEDPRONUNCIATIONISTHEPRONUNCIATIONACCEPTEDBYMOSTPEOPLE20HEMAXIMALONSETPRINCIPLESTATESTHATWHENTHEREISACHOICEASTOWHERETOPLACEACONSONANT,ITISPUTINTOTHECODARATHERTHANTHEONSETIIIFILLINTHEBLANKS2021CONSONANTSOUNDSCANBEEITHER_OR_,WHILEALLVOWELSOUNDSARE_22CONSONANTSOUNDSCANALSOBEMADEWHENTWOORGANSOFSPEECHINTHEMOUTHAREBROUGHTCLOSETOGETHERSOTHATTHEAIRISPUSHEDOUTBETWEENTHEM,CAUSING_23THEQUALITIESOFVOWELSDEPENDUPONTHEPOSITIONOFTHE_ANDTHELIPS24ONEELEMENTINTHEDESCRIPTIONOFVOWELSISTHEPARTOFTHETONGUEWHICHISATTHEHIGHESTPOINTINTHEMOUTHASECONDELEMENTISTHE_TOWHICHTHATPARTOFTHETONGUEISRAISED25CONSONANTSDIFFERFROMVOWELSINTHATTHELATTERAREPRODUCEDWITHOUT_26INPHONOLOGICALANALYSISTHEWORDSFAIL/VEILAREDISTINGUISHABLESIMPLYBECAUSEOFTHETWOPHONEMES/F/V/THISISANEXAMPLEFORILLUSTRATING_27INENGLISHTHEREAREANUMBEROF_,WHICHAREPRODUCEDBYMOVINGFROMONEVOWELPOSITIONTOANOTHERTHROUGHINTERVENINGPOSITIONS28_REFERSTOTHEPHENOMENONOFSOUNDSCONTINUALLYSHOWTHEINFLUENCEOFTHEIRNEIGHBORS29_ISTHESMALLESTLINGUISTICUNIT30SPEECHTAKESPLACEWHENTHEORGANSOFSPEECHMOVETOPRODUCEPATTERNSOFSOUNDTHESEMOVEMENTSHAVEANEFFECTONTHE_COMINGFROMTHELUNGSCHAPTER3LEXICONICHOOSETHEBESTANSWER201NOUNS,VERBSANDADJECTIVESCANBECLASSIFIEDAS_ALEXICALWORDSBGRAMMATICALWORDSCFUNCTIONWORDSDFORMWORDS2MORPHEMESTHATREPRESENTTENSE,NUMBER,GENDERANDCASEARECALLED_MORPHEMEAINFLECTIONALBFREECBOUNDDDERIVATIONAL3THEREARE_MORPHEMESINTHEWORDDENATIONALIZATIONATHREEBFOURCFIVEDSIX4INENGLISHISEANDTIONARECALLED_APREFIXESBSUFFIXESCINFIXESDSTEMS5THETHREESUBTYPESOFAFFIXESAREPREFIX,SUFFIXAND_ADERIVATIONALAFFIXBINFLECTIONALAFFIXCINFIXDBACKFORMATION6_ISAWAYINWHICHNEWWORDSMAYBEFORMEDFROMALREADYEXISTINGWORDSBYSUBTRACTINGANAFFIXWHICHISTHOUGHTTOBEPARTOFTHEOLDWORDAAFFIXATIONBBACKFORMATIONCINSERTIONDADDITION7THEWORDTBISFORMEDINTHEWAYOF_AACRONYMYBCLIPPINGCINITIALISMDBLENDING8THEWORDSLIKECOMSATANDSITCOMAREFORMEDBY_ABLENDINGBCLIPPINGCBACKFORMATIONDACRONYMY9THESTEMOFDISAGREEMENTSIS_AAGREEMENTBAGREECDISAGREEDDISAGREEMENT10ALLOFTHEMAREMEANINGFULEXCEPTFOR_ALEXEMEBPHONEMECMORPHEMEDALLOMORPHIIDECIDEWHETHERTHEFOLLOWINGSTATEMENTSARETRUEORFALSE1011PHONETICALLY,THESTRESSOFACOMPOUNDALWAYSFALLSONTHEFIRSTELEMENT,WHILETHESECONDELEMENTRECEIVESSECONDARYSTRESS12FOREASINFORETELLISBOTHAPREFIXANDABOUNDMORPHEME13BASEREFERSTOTHEPARTOFTHEWORDTHATREMAINSWHENALLINFLECTIONALAFFIXESAREREMOVED14INMOSTCASES,PREFIXESCHANGETHEMEANINGOFTHEBASEWHEREASSUFFIXESCHANGETHEWORDCLASSOFTHEBASE15CONVERSIONFROMNOUNTOVERBISTHEMOSTPRODUCTIVEPROCESSOFAWORD16REDUPLICATIVECOMPOUNDISFORMEDBYREPEATINGTHESAMEMORPHEMEOFAWORD17THEWORDSWHIMPER,WHISPERANDWHISTLEAREFORMEDINTHEWAYOFONOMATOPOEIA18INMOSTCASES,THENUMBEROFSYLLABLESOFAWORDCORRESPONDSTOTHENUMBEROFMORPHEMES19BACKFORMATIONISAPRODUCTIVEWAYOFWORDFORMATIONS20INFLECTIONISAPARTICULARWAYOFWORDFORMATIONSIIIFILLINTHEBLANKS2021AN_ISPRONOUNCEDLETTERBYLETTER,WHILEAN_ISPRONOUNCEDASAWORD22LEXICON,INMOSTCASES,ISSYNONYMOUSWITH_23ORTHOGRAPHICALLY,COMPOUNDSAREWRITTENINTHREEWAYS_,_AND_24ALLWORDSMAYBESAIDTOCONTAINAROOT_25ASMALLSETOFCONJUNCTIONS,PREPOSITIONSANDPRONOUNSBELONGTO_CLASS,WHILETHELARGESTPARTOFNOUNS,VERBS,ADJECTIVESANDADVERBSBELONGSTO_CLASS26_ISAREVERSEPROCESSOFDERIVATION,ANDTHEREFOREISAPROCESSOFSHORTENING27_ISEXTREMELYPRODUCTIVE,BECAUSEENGLISHHADLOSTMOSTOFITSINFLECTIONALENDINGSBYTHEENDOFMIDDLEENGLISHPERIOD,WHICHFACILITATEDTHEUSEOFWORDSINTERCHANGEABLYASVERBSORNOUNS,VERBSORADJECTIVES,ANDVICEVERSA28WORDSAREDIVIDEDINTOSIMPLE,COMPOUNDANDDERIVEDWORDSONTHE_LEVEL29AWORDFORMEDBYDERIVATIONISCALLEDA_,ANDAWORDFORMEDBYCOMPOUNDINGISCALLEDA_30BOUNDMORPHEMESARECLASSIFIEDINTOTWOTYPES_AND_CHAPTER4SYNTAXICHOOSETHEBESTANSWER201THESENTENCESTRUCTUREIS_AONLYLINEARBONLYHIERARCHICALCCOMPLEXDBOTHLINEARANDHIERARCHICAL2THESYNTACTICRULESOFANYLANGUAGEARE_INNUMBERALARGEBSMALLCFINITEDINFINITE3THE_RULESARETHERULESTHATGROUPWORDSANDPHRASESTOFORMGRAMMATICALSENTENCESALEXICALBMORPHOLOGICALCLINGUISTICDCOMBINATIONAL4ASENTENCEISCONSIDERED_WHENITDOESNOTCONFORMTOTHEGRAMMATICALKNOWLEDGEINTHEMINDOFNATIVESPEAKERSARIGHTBWRONGCGRAMMATICALDUNGRAMMATICAL5A_INTHEEMBEDDEDCLAUSEREFERSTOTHEINTRODUCTORYWORDTHATINTRODUCESTHEEMBEDDEDCLAUSEACOORDINATORBPARTICLECPREPOSITIONDSUBORDINATOR6PHRASESTRUCTURERULESHAVE_PROPERTIESARECURSIVEBGRAMMATICALCSOCIALDFUNCTIONAL7PHRASESTRUCTURERULESALLOWUSTOBETTERUNDERSTAND_AHOWWORDSANDPHRASESFORMSENTENCESBWHATCONSTITUTESTHEGRAMMATICALITYOFSTRINGSOFWORDSCHOWPEOPLEPRODUCEANDRECOGNIZEPOSSIBLESENTENCESDALLOFTHEABOVE8THEHEADOFTHEPHRASE“THECITYROME”IS_ATHECITYBROMECCITYDTHECITYROME9THEPHRASE“ONTHESHELF”BELONGSTO_CONSTRUCTIONAENDOCENTRICBEXOCENTRICCSUBORDINATEDCOORDINATE10THESENTENCE“THEYWEREWANTEDTOREMAINQUIETANDNOTTOEXPOSETHEMSELVES”ISA_SENTENCEASIMPLEBCOORDINATECCOMPOUNDDCOMPLEXIIDECIDEWHETHERTHEFOLLOWINGSTATEMENTSARETRUEORFALSE1011UNIVERSALLYFOUNDINTHEGRAMMARSOFALLHUMANLANGUAGES,SYNTACTICRULESTHATCOMPRISETHESYSTEMOFINTERNALIZEDLINGUISTICKNOWLEDGEOFALANGUAGESPEAKERAREKNOWNASLINGUISTICCOMPETENCE12THESYNTACTICRULESOFANYLANGUAGEAREFINITEINNUMBER,BUTTHEREISNOLIMITTOTHENUMBEROFSENTENCESNATIVESPEAKERSOFTHATLANGUAGEAREABLETOPRODUCEANDCOMPREHEND13INACOMPLEXSENTENCE,THETWOCLAUSESHOLDUNEQUALSTATUS,ONESUBORDINATINGTHEOTHER14CONSTITUENTSTHATCANBESUBSTITUTEDFORONEANOTHERWITHOUTLOSSOFGRAMMATICALITYBELONGTOTHESAMESYNTACTICCATEGORY15MINORLEXICALCATEGORIESAREOPENBECAUSETHESECATEGORIESARENOTFIXEDANDNEWMEMBERSAREALLOWEDFOR16INENGLISHSYNTACTICANALYSIS,FOURPHRASALCATEGORIESARECOMMONLYRECOGNIZEDANDDISCUSSED,NAMELY,NOUNPHRASE,VERBPHRASE,INFINITIVEPHRASE,ANDAUXILIARYPHRASE17INENGLISHTHESUBJECTUSUALLYPRECEDESTHEVERBANDTHEDIRECTOBJECTUSUALLYFOLLOWSTHEVERB18WHATISACTUALLYINTERNALIZEDINTHEMINDOFANATIVESPEAKERISACOMPLETELISTOFWORDSANDPHRASESRATHERTHANGRAMMATICALKNOWLEDGE19ANOUNPHRASEMUSTCONTAINANOUN,BUTOTHERELEMENTSAREOPTIONAL20ITISBELIEVEDTHATPHRASESTRUCTURERULES,WITHTHEINSERTIONOFTHELEXICON,GENERATESENTENCESATTHELEVELOFDSTRUCTUREIIIFILLINTHEBLANKS2021A_SENTENCECONSISTSOFASINGLECLAUSEWHICHCONTAINSASUBJECTANDAPREDICATEANDSTANDSALONEASITSOWNSENTENCE22A_ISASTRUCTURALLYINDEPENDENTUNITTHATUSUALLYCOMPRISESANUMBEROFWORDSTOFORMACOMPLETESTATEMENT,QUESTIONORCOMMAND23A_MAYBEANOUNORANOUNPHRASEINASENTENCETHATUSUALLYPRECEDESTHEPREDICATE24THEPARTOFASENTENCEWHICHCOMPRISESAFINITEVERBORAVERBPHRASEANDWHICHSAYSSOMETHINGABOUTTHESUBJECTISGRAMMATICALLYCALLED_25A_SENTENCECONTAINSTWO,ORMORE,CLAUSES,ONEOFWHICHISINCORPORATEDINTOTHEOTHER26INTHECOMPLEXSENTENCE,THEINCORPORATEDORSUBORDINATECLAUSEISNORMALLYCALLEDAN_CLAUSE27MAJORLEXICALCATEGORIESARE_CATEGORIESINTHESENSETHATNEWWORDSARECONSTANTLYADDED28_CONDITIONONCASEASSIGNMENTSTATESTHATACASEASSIGNORANDACASERECIPIENTSHOULDSTAYADJACENTTOEACHOTHER29_ARESYNTACTICOPTIONSOFUGTHATALLOWGENERALPRINCIPLESTOOPERATEINONEWAYORANOTHERANDCONTRIBUTETOSIGNIFICANTLINGUISTICVARIATIONSBETWEENANDAMONGNATURALLANGUAGES30THETHEORYOF_CONDITIONEXPLAINSTHEFACTTHATNOUNPHRASESAPPEARONLYINSUBJECTANDOBJECTPOSITIONSCHAPTER5MEANINGMAINLYTAKENFROMLXM1000WSEXERCISESICYWARMTEAICHOOSETHEBESTANSWER201THENAMINGTHEORYISADVANCEDBY_APLATOBBLOOMFIELDCGEOFFREYLEECHDFIRTH2“WESHALLKNOWAWORDBYTHECOMPANYITKEEPS”THISSTATEMENTREPRESENTS_ATHECONCEPTUALISTVIEWBCONTEXUTALISMCTHENAMINGTHEORYDBEHAVIORISM3WHICHOFTHEFOLLOWINGISNOTTRUEASENSEISCONCERNEDWITHTHEINHERENTMEANINGOFTHELINGUISTICFORMBSENSEISTHECOLLECTIONOFALLTHEFEATURESOFTHELINGUISTICFORMCSENSEISABSTRACTANDDECONTEXTUALIZEDDSENSEISTHEASPECTOFMEANINGDICTIONARYCOMPILERSARENOTINTERESTEDIN4“CANIBORROWYOURBIKE”_“YOUHAVEABIKE”AISSYNONYMOUSWITHBISINCONSISTENTWITHCENTAILSDPRESUPPOSES5_ISAWAYINWHICHTHEMEANINGOFAWORDCANBEDISSECTEDINTOMEANINGCOMPONENTS,CALLEDSEMANTICFEATURESAPREDICATIONANALYSISBCOMPONENTIALANALYSISCPHONEMICANALYSISDGRAMMATICALANALYSIS6“ALIVE”AND“DEAD”ARE_AGRADABLEANTONYMSBRELATIONALANTONYMSCCOMPLEMENTARYANTONYMSDNONEOFTHEABOVE7_DEALSWITHTHERELATIONSHIPBETWEENTHELINGUISTICELEMENTANDTHENONLINGUISTICWORLDOFEXPERIENCEAREFERENCEBCONCEPTCSEMANTICSDSENSE8_REFERSTOTHEPHENOMENONTHATWORDSHAVINGDIFFERENTMEANINGSHAVETHESAMEFORMAPOLYSEMYBSYNONYMYCHOMONYMYDHYPONYMY9WORDSTHATARECLOSEINMEANINGARECALLED_AHOMONYMSBPOLYSEMIESCHYPONYMSDSYNONYMS10THEGRAMMATICALITYOFASENTENCEISGOVERNEDBY_AGRAMMATICALRULESBSELECTIONALRESTRICTIONSCSEMANTICRULESDSEMANTICFEATURESIIDECIDEWHETHERTHEFOLLOWINGSTATEMENTSARETRUEORFALSE1011DIALECTALSYNONYMSCANOFTENBEFOUNDINDIFFERENTREGIONALDIALECTSSUCHASBRITISHENGLISHANDAMERICANENGLISHBUTCANNOTBEFOUNDWITHINTHEVARIETYITSELF,FOREXAMPLE,WITHINBRITISHENGLISHORAMERICANENGLISH12SENSEISCONCERNEDWITHTHERELATIONSHIPBETWEENTHELINGUISTICELEMENTANDTHENONLINGUISTICWORLDOFEXPERIENCE,WHILETHEREFERENCEDEALSWITHTHEINHERENTMEANINGOFTHELINGUISTICFORM13LINGUISTICFORMSHAVINGTHESAMESENSEMAYHAVEDIFFERENTREFERENCESINDIFFERENTSITUATIONS14INSEMANTICS,MEANINGOFLANGUAGEISCONSIDEREDASTHEINTRINSICANDINHERENTRELATIONTOTHEPHYSICALWORLDOFEXPERIENCE15CONTEXTUALISMISBASEDONTHEPRESUMPTIONTHATONECANDERIVEMEANINGFROMORREDUCEMEANINGTOOBSERVABLECONTEXTS16BEHAVIORISTSATTEMPTEDTODEFINETHEMEANINGOFALANGUAGEFORMASTHESITUATIONINWHICHTHESPEAKERUTTERSITANDTHERESPONSEITCALLSFORTHINTHEHEARER17THEMEANINGOFASENTENCEISTHESUMTOTALOFTHEMEANINGSOFALLITSCOMPONENTS18MOSTLANGUAGESHAVESETSOFLEXICALITEMSSIMILARINMEANINGBUTRANKEDDIFFERENTLYACCORDINGTOTHEIRDEGREEOFFORMALITY19“ITISHOT”ISANOPLACEPREDICATIONBECAUSEITCONTAINSNOARGUMENT20INGRAMMATICALANALYSIS,THESENTENCEISTAKENTOBETHEBASICUNIT,BUTINSEMANTICANALYSISOFASENTENCE,THEBASICUNITISPREDICATION,WHICHISTHEABSTRACTIONOFTHEMEANINGOFASENTENCEIIIFILLINTHEBLANKS2021_CANBEDEFINEDASTHESTUDYOFMEANING22THECONCEPTUALISTVIEWHOLDSTHATTHEREISNO_LINKBETWEENALINGUISTICFORMANDWHATITREFERSTO23_MEANSWHATALINGUISTICFORMREFERSTOINTHEREAL,PHYSICALWORLDITDEALSWITHTHERELATIONSHIPBETWEENTHELINGUISTICELEMENTANDTHENONLINGUISTICWORLDOFEXPERIENCE24WORDSTHATARECLOSEINMEANINGARECALLED_25WHENTWOWORDSAREIDENTICALINSOUND,BUTDIFFERENTINSPELLINGANDMEANING,THEYARECALLED_26_OPPOSITESAREPAIRSOFWORDSTHATEXHIBITTHEREVERSALOFARELATIONSHIPBETWEENTHETWOITEMS27_ANALYSISISBASEDUPONTHEBELIEFTHATTHEMEANINGOFAWORDCANBEDIVIDEDINTOMEANINGCOMPONENTS28WHETHERASENTENCEISSEMANTICALLYMEANINGFULISGOVERNEDBYRULESCALLED_RESTRICTIONS,WHICHARECONSTRAINTSONWHATLEXICALITEMSCANGOWITHWHATOTHERS29AN_ISALOGICALPARTICIPANTINAPREDICATION,LARGELYIDENTICALWITHTHENOMINALELEMENTSINASENTENCE30ACCORDINGTOTHE_THEORYOFMEANING,THEWORDSINALANGUAGEARETAKENTOBELABELSOFTHEOBJECTSTHEYSTANDFORCHAPTER7LANGUAGE,CULTUREANDSOCIETYICHOOSETHEBESTANSWER201_ISCONCERNEDWITHTHESOCIALSIGNIFICANCEOFLANGUAGEVARIATIONANDLANGUAGEUSEINDIFFERENTSPEECHCOMMUNITIESAPSYCHOLINGUISTICSBSOCIOLINGUISTICSCAPPLIEDLINGUISTICSDGENERALLINGUISTICS2THEMOSTDISTINGUISHABLELINGUISTICFEATUREOFAREGIONALDIALECTISITS_AUSEOFWORDSBUSEOFSTRUCTURESCACCENTDMORPHEMES3_ISSPEECHVARIATIONACCORDINGTOTHEPARTICULARAREAWHEREASPEAKERCOMESFROMAREGIONALVARIATIONBLANGUAGEVARIATIONCSOCIALVARIATIONDREGISTERVARIATION4_ARETHEMAJORSOURCEOFREGIONALVARIATIONOFLANGUAGEAGEOGRAPHICALBARRIERSBLOYALTYTOANDCONFIDENCEINONESNATIVESPEECHCPHYSICALDISCOMFORTANDPSYCHOLOGICALRESISTANCETOCHANGEDSOCIALBARRIERS5_MEANSTHATCERTAINAUTHORITIES,SUCHASTHEGOVERNMENTCHOOSE,APARTICULARSPEECHVARIETY,STANDARDIZEITANDSPREADTHEUSEOFITACROSSREGIONALBOUNDARIESALANGUAGEINTERFERENCEBLANGUAGECHANGESCLANGUAGEPLANNINGDLANGUAGETRANSFER6_INAPERSONSSPEECHORWRITINGUSUALLYRANGESONACONTINUUMFROMCASUALORCOLLOQUIALTOFORMALORPOLITEACCORDINGTOTHETYPEOFCOMMUNICATIVESITUATIONAREGIONALVARIATIONBCHANGESINEMOTIONSCVARIATIONINCONNOTATIONSDSTYLISTICVARIATION7A_ISAVARIETYOFLANGUAGETHATSERVESASAMEDIUMOFCOMMUNICATIONAMONGGROUPSOFPEOPLEFORDIVERSELINGUISTICBACKGROUNDSALINGUAFRANCABREGISTERCCREOLEDNATIONALLANGUAGE8ALTHOUGH_ARESIMPLIFIEDLANGUAGESWITHREDUCEDGRAMMATICALFEATURES,THEYARERULEGOVERNED,LIKEANYHUMANLANGUAGEAVERNACULARLANGUAGESBCREOLESCPIDGINSDSOCIOLECTS9INNORMALSITUATIONS,_SPEAKERSTENDTOUSEMOREPRESTIGIOUSFORMSTHANTHEIR_COUNTERPARTSWITHTHESAMESOCIALBACKGROUNDAFEMALEMALEBMALEFEMALECOLDYOUNGDYOUNGOLD10ALINGUISTIC_REFERSTOAWORDOREXPRESSIONTHATISPROHIBITEDBYTHE“POLITE”SOCIETYFROMGENERALUSEASLANGBEUPHEMISMCJARGONDTABOOIIDECIDEWHETHERTHEFOLLOWINGSTATEMENTSARETRUEORFALSE1011LANGUAGEASAMEANSOFSOCIALCOMMUNICATIONISAHOMOGENEOUSSYSTEMWITHAHOMOGENEOUSGROUPOFSPEAKERS12THEGOALOFSOCIOLINGUISTICSISTOEXPLORETHENATUREOFLANGUAGEVARIATIONANDLANGUAGEUSEAMONGAVARIETYOFSPEECHCOMMUNITIESANDINDIFFERENTSOCIALSITUATIONS13FROMTHESOCIOLINGUISTICPERSPECTIVE,THETERM“SPEECHVARIETY”CANNO
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