科研选题与论文写作.ppt

科研选题 Lieu 1945). 逗号 “,” 和点号“.”和前面的字母之间没有空格，和后面的字母之间有空 格。 23. 关于时态的正确使用 (1) 叙述你本论文的工作使用一般现在时； (2) 描述你以前的相关工作使用一般过去时； (3) 描述别人以前的工作使用一般过去时； (4) 但是当你现在的工作是以前你的或者别人的某个工作的延续时，对那 个工作的描述需要使用一般完成时； (5) 在文章的summary 部分描述本文章的结果时可以使用一般现在时、 过去时和一般完成时， 如“The black hole we studied in this work . ”, “In this paper we have calculated. ”, “It has been shown that . ”, “We study this problem . ”, “We analyze these data. ”,“We start from . ”, “We found that . ”, “We conclude that”,“It is shown”, “In this paper we calculate . ”； (6) 在回复审稿人的信里面，谈到你这篇文章中你做了什么的时 候用一般过去式，或者一般完成时. 如： 1 Thanks for the referees suggestion. Actually we calculated the mass accretion of three sources, but neglected to include the result in the paper. 2 We included Figure 2 and Table 3 in the revised manuscript. 3 We thank the referee for these insightful comments and suggestions. 4 We have improved the manuscript substantially. 5 The manuscript has been improved significantly by including. 6 如果是回复审稿人的第二封信，开头可写为：We have further improved the manuscript following the suggestions in the second referee report. (7) 描述发生在过去的一件事用过去时，描述虽然过去发 生的、但是已经被认定为“普遍事实(general truth)”的 使用一般现在时，如： In yesterdays battle, three soldiers were killed and one was injured. Now a total of 15 soldiers are dead and nine soldiers are injured. 其它的鸡零狗碎知识 例 “亮度可以从以下方程计算得到”经常被写成“The luminosity can be calculated from the below equation.” 正确的写法是： 1 The luminosity can be calculated from the following equation. 2 The luminosity can be calculated from the equation as follows . (following也可) 若将其中的following 换成followings 则是错误的。 例 “Physicists were looking for a fundamental explanation why ( 应改为for why) the electron mass could not be any different from its measured value.” “So”作为句子的开头太频繁，可以适当使用“Therefore”, “Hence”,“Consequently”, “Thus”, “As a result”等。因此应该避 免使用“So”作为句子的开头。 “And”, “But”作为句子的开头太频繁，尽量不用“And”, “But” 作为句子的开头，可以适当使“However”，“Nevertheless”等作 为句子的转折。 “get”(包括“got”) 使用的太多，可以适当使用“obtain”, “derive”, “deduce”, “acquire”等(“This result is got.”不要使用) 。 l“We”作为句子的开头太频繁：只有作者特别想强调是“我 们”做的，而不是“别人”做的时候才使用“We”作为句子的开头 ，在一篇文章的开始和总结部分可以适当地使用一些，正文 中间一般都是使用倒装句字。 “Now”作为句子的开头太频繁。因为科技论文的基本时态就 是一般现在时，所以基本上没有必要使用“Now”。 尽量不要出现“We feel . ”“We think . ”之类的句子。 科技论文中不用下列口语化的东西：its, cant, couldnt， doesnt 等。 除了命令式之外，一个完整的句子必须有主语(而且只能有一 个)、谓语和宾语。 很多同学在一个句子里面用多个主语。 如 The black hole binary is a very exciting source of high frequency QPOs, we therefore decided to study it. 是错误 的，因为这个句子有两个主语：“the black hole binary”和 “we”。 正确的写法是： We decided to study the black hole binary, because it is a very exciting source of high frequency QPOs. 两个谓语 例 “This is come from . ”应该改为“This comes from”(或者 “This is from”)。面试的错句。 例 “This radio-quiet quasar is also have a relativistic jet.”改 为“This radio-quiet quasar al so has a relativistic jet.” 一个句子作为宾语时，该句子前面应该有that： 1 It is actually the expansion of the event horizon which (改 为that) swallows the infalling shell. 2 Almost all gravitational potential energy is converted into the kinetic energy of the accreted matter which (改为that) free-falls into the black hole and thus is (注意这里需要“is”) lost into the event horizon of the black hole. 3 I am thinking about the environment distribution to (改为 that may) course this missing emission. A 随着B 增加而增加 正确翻译是：“A increases with increasing B.” 或者“A increases with B.” 错误的翻译： 1 A increases by increasing B. 2 A increases with B increases. 3 A increases with increases B. A 随着B 增加而减少 正确翻译是：“A decreases with increasing B.” may, maybe, may be 1 (a) This maybe the reason. 应该修改为： (b) This may be the reason. 或者 (c) Maybe this is the reason. 2 (a) He agreed that this burst may totally from the external shock. 修改为： (b) He agreed that this burst may come totally from the external shock. (c) He agreed that this burst may originate totally from the external shock. (d) He agreed that this burst may be totally from the external shock. 但2 (b) 中 may 如果换成 maybe 则是错误的。 最右边、 左边、 上面、 下面： rightmost, leftmost, uppermost, lowermost。 经常错误地写为 most right, . “数量级”是 “order of magnitude”， 经常被误用为“order” 例如“The mass of this black hole is about one order smaller (应改为smaller by about one order of magnitude) than that one.” “The configuration is consists of three parts.”是错误的。 有两个正确的写法： 1 The configuration is consisted of three parts. 2 The configuration consists of three parts. 用词注意事项 1. 用字要准确. 2. 推理用语的使用 3. 用词要保持一致 4. 尽量少用简写 5. 不要用缩约语 6. 避免使用俚语 7. 近义词的用法区别 8. 词义的选取 9. 常用易错字 10.科技简洁用词 1. 用字要准确. 每个科学术语都有其特定的含义, 使用要准确 微生物学：Medium, Broth 和 Culture三个词 Medium： 培养基, 可以是液体也可以是固体 Broth： 培养液, 只是液体 Culture：指细菌和培养液的混合物. 从发酵罐中取样, 是Culture, 而不能用Medium或Broth. Promote 职位的提升, 不能当Increase来使用. Production was promoted by 16% in the new procedure. 宜改为: Production was increased by 16% in the new procedure. Perform: 表示一个行动，而不指某个具体事物. 浓度不能Perform, 但测浓度可以用Perform. The zinc concentration was performed. 宜改为: The zinc concentration was measured. 或Measurement of the zinc concentration was performed. 2. 推理用语的使用 从实验观察和数据到结论的推理过程中，在事实和理论的关系上可 能有从“同一致”,“表示”， “证明”等不同的强弱关系，在选择用词上要 合理. 常用词:is compatible with, imply, suggest, indicate, show, prove. 是一个从弱到强的顺序. is compatible with, is consistent with, in line with 表示是个合理的 解释, 不矛盾, 但可能还有其他的解释. imply, suggest 表示支持现在的结论， 这个结论比其它的更合理, 但不 能 证明就是这个结论. indicate, show, demonstrate 就更确定, 表示几乎就是这个结论了. 其 他的可能性不大, 但还不是百分之百的证明. prove 表示完全肯定， 没有任何其他可能性了(科研中很少有这种情况. 用 prove 要特别注意.) 3. 用词要保持一致 论文从头到尾用字要保持一致. 时间单位的分钟即可以全拼成minutes,也可以简写成min, 二者都可以，但只能用一种写法. Figure或 Fig只用一种写法. 数字:如果一个写成 fifteen,另一个写成12也是不一致. 4. 尽量少用简写 作者自己熟悉的简写，读者不一定知道，应尽量少用简写. 必需时, 宜于第一次出现全名时在其后用括号标出简写 比如Heat Shock Protein (HSP) Multi Body Dynamics（MBD） 广泛使用的简写, 如ml, AIDS 等可不用写出全名. 5. 不要用缩约语 正式地写作中, 不使用如 didnt, dont, cant, havent.缩 约语. 应该写完整形式, did not, do not, cannot (一个字), have not . . 6. 避免使用俚语 虽然非英语国家的作者不是很好区分什么是俚语，但还 是要注意不要使用像 a lot, sort of, pretty good的口头 用语. 7. 近义词的用法区别 “方程”的英文是“equation”，不是“formula”，“formula”的意 思是“公式”。 “question”和“problem”翻译成中文都是“问题”，但是英文的 意思完全不同，如“ask a question”，“answer a question” ，“formulate a problem”，“solve a problem”等； 1 I have a question about the last page of your presentation. 2 I have a problem about the last page of your presentation. 前者的意思是你有不清楚或者不明白的东西要问，后者是指你认 为“the last page of your presentation”有错误。 “too”和“also”的用法区别： 1 I have done this quickly too. 2 I have also done this quickly. “few”和“several”用法区分: “several”的意思是“几个” “few” 是“几乎没有”或者“少” 但“a few”的意思是“几个” 如： 1 (a) I bought several books today. (b) I bought a few books today. 这两句话的意思略微不同：前者情况是指买的比较多，后者指的是买的比较少 。 2 There is very few water left in the bottle. (那个瓶子里面几乎没有水了。) 3 Very few students came to todays seminar. (今天参加讲座的学生很少。 ) 4 Few students came last night. (昨晚只来了几个学生。) 5 A few students came last night. (昨晚来了几个学生。) 区分科技英语中的property, character 和characteristic 。翻译成中文都是“特征”、“特性”和“性质”，但是在英 文中意思不同。 1 quality 最普通用词，既可指有形或无形的特性，又 可指个性或共性的特征。 2 character 多指一类人或事物所具有的独特的典型的 特征。 3 characteristic 指某人或某物天生有别于他人或他物 的内部特质或外表特征。 Obscure (动词和形容词) 的主要意思是“遮挡”。 很多同学以为“obscure”的意思就是“模糊”， 应该用fuzzy, blur, dark, faint 等的时候误用obscure。 1 The black hole is obscured by the dust along the line of sight. 2 The image of the star is fuzzy, because the telescope is out of focus. 3 The image of the star is blurred, because the telescope . 4 The source appears to be dark (或者faint), because of the obscuration by the gas in front of it. “At last”和“Finally”不完全一样 如“Finally, we reconstruct the expansion history of the Universe up to with the distance moduli of SNe Ia and GRBs.” Finally 换成 At last，意思是不同的： 前者的意思是，“最后，我们重建(了) ”，后者的意思是 “我们终于重建(了) ”。 “suspect or suspicious”(正面) 和“doubt or doubtful”(负面)。 例子： 1 We suspect that the observed deviation of data from the model prediction is caused by the over-simplification of the model. (我们怀疑观测数据和模型的偏离是由于模型过分简化造 成的。) 2 We doubt that the observed deviation of data from the model prediction is caused by the over-simplification of the model. (我们怀疑观测数据和模型的偏离不是由于模型过分简化 造成的。) distinction (定性的区别) 和difference (定量的不同)： 1 A distinction should be made between a star and a planet. 2 The difference between the two measurements is only 10%. “due to”, “because of”, “since”, “because”和“as”都有“ 因为”和“由于”的意思，但是使用起来 很不一样。 “because”的主要意思“因为”， “since”的主要意思 “自从”(描述时间)。 不建议使用“as”，因为“as”的主要意思是“作为”。 使用“due to”和“because of”的例子： 1 Due to the expansion of the universe, the distances between galaxies become farther and farther. 2 Because of your work, this problem has been solved completely. 在大多数情况下，“due to”和“because of”可以通用，但是 意思略微有所不同。“due to”指自然发展、顺理成章的理由 ，“because of”指主动介入导致结果的理由。 revise、correct、modify 的区别： revise or revision or revised: 修改或者更新，没有错误，但是 不够完善 correct or correction or corrected: 修正或者改正，有错误，需 要改过来 “modify”的意思介于两者之间 8. 词义的选取 例1 一般情况下使用单词的第一个意思。 比如“for”的意思包括“为了”、“因为”，但是在科技文章里面只使 用“为了”。需要“因为”的时候用“because”或者“since”。 “as”的意思包括“作为”、“因为”等，但是在科技文章里面只使 用“作为”。 例2 “while”主要有两个意思： “当 时候”和“然而”。 但是科技英文尽可能使用单词的第一个意思，因此建议只使用 “while”为“当 时候”，当需要使用“然而”的时候用“whereas” 。 例3 even 有几个意思 举例： 1 Even though (虽然) a scientist does not make a lot of money, I still choose doing research because . 2 Even if (尽管) this book costs a lot of money, I will still buy it because . 3 This book is very good, even (甚至) better than the most popular book written by. 例4 primary 的意思，误用作“初始”(initial) 或者“初 级 ”(elementary) 或者“非正式”(preliminary)。 实际上primary 的主要意思是“主要”。 例子： 1 The energy spectrum of this source is consisted of two components; the primary (主要) component is a blackbody with a temperature of 1 keV and the secondary (次要) component is a power-law with a photon index of 2. 2 After analyzing these data, our preliminary (初步) conclusion is that this accretion disk has aninner disk radius of 20 km. 3 After analyzing these data, our primary (主要) conclusion is that this accretion disk has an inner disk radius of 20 km. 关于冒号的用法 冒号后面如果接的是句子，则第一个字母是大写； 如果是单词或词组，则第一个字母是小写。 1 It requires that a clock still show proper time after being read: The quantum uncertainty in its position must not introduce significant inaccuracies in its measurement of time over the total running time. (请注意这里的“show”用动词原形， 因为“require”是命令语气。) 2 I classify black holes into three categories: mathematical black holes, physical black holes or astrophysical black holes. ( 请注意这里的“or”经常被误写为“and”。) 日期的写法： the first of July, 2006；July first, 2006； the second of July, 2006；the third of July； the 4th of July；the 28th of July； July 28th, 2006；2006-07-28；07-28-2006 (USA), 28-07-2006 (Europe and the rest of world)。 30 年代：“1930s”是正确的，“1930s”是错误的。 “Up to now, about 20 (应改为twenty) black holes with masses around ten (应改为10) solar masses, called stellar mass black holes, have been identified observationally.” 数字的英文写法 如果能够使用一个单词的数一般不用阿拉 伯数字。比如“nine books”或者“twenty books”而 不是“9 books”或者“20 books”；但是后面接物理量单位时，9 kg 是正确的，nine kg 是错误的。 9. 经常使用,但容易出现问题的字 Above: “ 如前所述 , as discussed above” “ 前面的方法 , the above method” 等 . 但 above 不确定，用起来容易 ， 读起来不易明白 , 容易 造成表达不清 . 这时应把 所指的事情明确 地写 出来 . 类似不明确的字还有 former, latter. 应避免使用 Adapt, adept, adopt Adapt 是动词, 适应 . Adept 是形容词, 熟练的 . Adopt 是动词， 采用 . Affect, Effect, Impact Affect 是动词，影响 (influence) 的意思 . 如 “ 温度对细胞生长的影响 , “Temperature affected the growth of cells”. Effect 是名词，是结果 (result), 影响的意思 . 有时也可以作动词 , 招致 (bring about) 的意思 . 科技论文中很少使用 effect 的动词形式 . Impact 当冲击，碰撞讲 . 如 “ Western popular culture has a huge impact on Asian society ”. 自然科学不同参数的相互影响一般不用 impact 来描写 , 用 affect 或 influence 更合适 . Agree to, agree with Agree to 同意 , giving consent. “I agree to a biopsy test”. Agree with 一致 , in accord. “The results agree with our previous observation”. Alternate, Alternative Alternate 是交替的 ， 轮流的 . Alternative 是另外的 ， 选择的 . And 用 and 连接的词 , 词组或句子是相关联但又各自独立的 . 当排列三个以上的词时，最后的一个词之前加 and . 其 它的词后都加逗号 . Pollution in the river affected the population of different animals, such as fishes, birds, and turtles. And 之前也可以不加逗号 . Pollution in the river affected the population of different animals, such as fishes, birds and turtles. And: 之前加逗号是美国写法 ， 不加逗号是英国写法 . 用 and 连接句子时，若两个句子都很简单，中间可以不加逗号 . One liter of water was added and the solution was left at 4 o C overnight. 但中间加个逗号也正确 . One liter of water was added, and the solution was left at 4 o C overnight. 两个比较复杂的句子中间一定要加逗号，以便于阅读和理解 . The assay was carried out by heating the sample in boiling water for two hours, and the volume of the assay solution was kept constant by adding water. 用 and 来开始一个句子也是可以的 . and 起到对一些 相关和并列的描述来 连接的作用 . AIDS drugs are effective to control the replication of HIV, but they cannot cure AIDS. And a vaccine for AIDS is still elusive. Therefore, education and prevention are the most effective weapons against AIDS for now. 用 and 连接两个独立的句子时 , 可以在 and 之前加逗 号 ， 也可以不加逗号 . 但连接一个不完整的句子时 , 不能用逗号分开 . The sample was added to the testing solution, and allowed to react in a water bath at 37 for 10 min. 宜改为： The sample was added to the testing solution and allowed to react in a water bath at 37 for 10 min. As As 有很多不同的讲法，它有表示因果关系的用途，类似 because 和 since . as 表示的因果关系最弱 ， since 在中间 ， because 的因果关系最明确 . 不要用 as 来表示因果关系 . 用 because 或 since . As 用来表示 “ 同样地 ”, “ 像 一样 ”. The genetically engineered apple tastes as good as the natural one. As soon as the body temperature reached 39 o C, the child has to be sent to the emergency room. 也当 “ 在 的时候 ， when ” 讲 . As the snow started to melt, the team went back into the forest to collect samples. Average, mean, median Average 和 mean 都是平均的意思 , mean 是个数学用语 . Median 是一个系列 中的中间的那个值 . 2, 4, 8, 16, 32 average 和 mean 是 12.4, median 是 8. Because, because of 用 because 来表示因果关系是最明确的 . Because 后面写句子 ， Because of 后面用名词 . The tiger population deceased dramatically because their habitat was destroyed. The tiger population decreased dramatically because of loss of habitat. For 和 since 表示的因果关系要弱些 , 用 since 时往往强调的是当时的情况 ， 时间，地点等 . 有中文的 “ 既然 ” 的意思 . As 表示的因果关系最弱 . Since the weather is hot and humid, we decided to take a break. Beside, besides Beside 是 “ 在 旁边 ” ， besides 是 “ 除了 ”. Between, among Between 是两个人或事之间 , among 是两个以上人或事之间 . But 在连接比较简单的两个句子，并不影响句子的流畅的时候， but 之前可 以不加逗号 . He felt better but did not fully recover after taking the medicine. 连接两个比较长的句子时候， but 前应加逗号，把两个句子分开 . Scientists spent months to figure out why the satellite did not reach its orbit, but they never find the truth. But 也可以放在句子的开头 . For a long time people realize there has to be a natural ligand for the cannabinoid receptor. But its identity was only elucidated recently. 用逗号把 but 隔开是不对的 . But , its identity was only elucidated recently. Cannot Cannot 是一个字 ， can not 应写成 cannot. Compare with, compare to Compare with 比较 compare to 比作 It is often to compare the human brain with a computer. The human brain is often compared to a black box. While While 既可以用来做表示时间的连接词 ， “ 当 的时候 ”. 也可以用来表示转折和逻 辑的连接词 , 当 ” 然而，虽然，尽管 ” 讲 . 为避免含义不清 ， 用 when 或 although 取代更好 . Compose, consist , comprise Compose 当 “ 组成 ， 构成 ” 讲 ， 是 及物动词 . “xxx is composed of xxx”. 如 : An atom is composed of a nucleus and a defined number of electrons. Consist 当 ” 有 组成 ” 讲 ， 是 不及物动词 . “xxx consists of xxx”. 如 : An atom consists of a nucleus and a defined number of electrons. Comprise 当 ” 包括 ” 讲 ， 也有 “ 有 组成 ” 的意思 . 到底是什么用法 ， 很 容易 弄不明白 ， 所以干脆不要用这个字 . Continual, continuous Continual 是经常发生的 ， continuous 是连续和不间断的 . Correlated with, correlated to Correlate with 是正确用法 ， correlate to 是不对的 . Related to 是正确 . Different from, different than 事物之间不同： different from ； 人物之间不同： different than. Due to Due to 是 ” 应归于 ” 或 ” 有 引起 ” 的意思 (caused by) . 后面要跟名词 ， 同 because of 不同 . 但 due to 表达的也有因果关 系的意思 . 如果你不是很 确定 , 应避免使用 due to ， 用 because of 或 caused by . Equipment 单数和复数都是 equipment ， 没有 equipments 的写法 . Few, a few Few 是很少 , 强调没有多少 , 有否定的意思 . A few 也是很少 , 但强调有一 些 , 虽然不多，有肯定的意思 . Few 形容可数名词 ， little 形容不可数名词 . Little , a little 的用法同 few, a few 类似 . Flammable, inflammable, nonflammable Flammable, inflammable 都是易燃的意思 . nonflammable 才是他们 的反义词 . Following Following 是形容词 ， 表示 “ 接着的，下述的 ”. The behavior of the mouse was carefully monitored in the following days. 它也可以是动词 follow 的名词形式 . Following the flood, many wild lives found new habitant. Minimal, trivial Minimal 是最小的 , trivial 是轻微的 ， 不重要的 . Percent, percentage , percentile Percent 跟在数字后面 ， 以代替 % , 57 percent (57%). Percentage 是百分率 , percentage 不能同数字一起用 . 可以说 small percentage or large percentage . Percentile 是一个统计学用语 , 表示在 100 个分组中事物 出现的机率 . Proven Proven 是形容词 ， proved 是过去式 . Provided that 连接词 ， 假如 . Providing 是现在分词 . Remainder, remaining 都可以当 ” 剩余 ” 讲 . Since 有 “ 自从 ” 表示时间的意思 ， 也可以用来表示因果 Subsequently, consequently Subsequently 表示时间顺序 consequently 表示逻辑推理结果 . Such as 一般用逗号从主句分开，当 such as 后面排列的名词只有 1-2 个 时， 不影响 句子的流畅 ， 可以不用逗号分开 . 排列 的 事物和概 念要相等 . Heavy metals such as lead are especially toxic to children. The river is heavily polluted with heavy metals, such as lead, mercury, and cadmium. Than 用 than 来比较的两个对象要一致 . Acid A has a lower pKa than Acid B. The water content in sample A is higher than that in sample B. 有些词代表最终状态，不能进行比较 . 一些这样的词有 full, absolute, complete, unique, extinct, permanent, universal, 等 . That, which That/which 经常用来引导修饰从句 . 如果修饰从句可以省略掉而不影响句 子的完整性，也就是非限制性 从句 , 用 which, 并用逗号把修饰从句从主句分 开 . The recovered dogs, which were treated with antibiotics, are released. 如果修饰从句不可以省略掉 , 也就是限制性从句 , 那就用 that ，并 不用逗号分开 . Dogs that were treated with antibiotics recovered. 第一句话中 ， 就是 指 “ recovered dogs ”, 没有别的狗 . 第二句表示除了 “ Dogs that were treated with antibiotics ” ， 还 有其他的狗 . Toward, towards Toward, towards 的用法是一样的 。 美国用 toward , 英国用 towards . Use, using, utilize, employ 我们写作时经常会使用 using 这个字，但用 using 时经常会导致 同主句的 主语名词不一致 ， 应避免使用 . 可用 with 或 by 取代 . Using the reductive reaction, reducing power of VC was examined. 宜改为 : The reducing power of VC was examined with the reductive reaction. Utilize 是利用 , 有效使用的意思 , 同 use 不同 . 不能相互替代 . Employ 雇用人 , 使从事于 . 10. 科技简洁用词 句子的连接和信息的传承 使文章紧凑和连贯要注意两个方面 ： 1. 内容: 信息，要连贯 2. 用好连接词和连接用的副词 There is increasing interest in natural antioxidant products for use as medicines and food additives. Vitamin C, vitamin E and carotenoids are some of these widely used natural antioxidants . Reactive oxygen species (ROS) including superpxide anion radical, hydroxyl radical and hydrogen peroxide, are generate