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学号30611411232毕 业 设 计(论 文)中国戏曲文化书籍装帧教 学 系: 人文与艺术系 指导教师: 专业班级: 艺设1122班 学生姓名: 二零一六年五月 目 录摘 要1ABSTRACT21 设计调研31.1 设计调研的目的及意义31.2 现有主题作品类型分析31.3 相关主题作品类型分析41.4 设计定位42 创意筛选52.1 草图分析52.2 方案确定63 作品方案73.1 主题73.2 材料73.3 色彩83.4 图形83.5 表现技法93.6 设计说明94 总结10参 考 文 献11附 录12致 谢15摘 要中国戏曲主要是由民间歌舞、说唱和滑稽戏三种不同艺术形式综合而成。它起源于原始歌舞,是一种历史悠久的综合舞台艺术样式。经过汉、唐到宋、金才形成比较完整的戏曲艺术,它由文学、音乐、舞蹈、美术、武术、杂技以及表演艺术综合而成,约有三百六十多个种类。它的特点是将众多艺术形式以一种标准聚合在一起,在共同具有的性质中体现其各自的个性。中国的戏曲与希腊悲剧和喜剧、印度梵剧并称为世界三大古老的戏剧文化,经过长期的发展演变,逐步形成了以“京剧、越剧、黄梅戏、评剧、豫剧”五大戏曲剧种为核心的中华戏曲百花苑。中国戏曲剧种种类繁多,书籍更是数不胜数,此设计是针对中国戏曲文化的特点和意义,对中国戏曲文化进行系列的书籍装帧与设计。运用中国传统元素与戏曲元素相结合,设计一套独具艺术风格的古典书籍,通过对中国戏曲文化系列书籍的装帧设计与研究的实践经验,体现书籍装帧的艺术性,突出书籍装帧的重要意义及深远影响。关键词:书籍装帧;中国戏曲文化;古典书籍;系列ABSTRACT Decorative painting source in the Warring States period,in the Warring States period known for silk painting art,is a kind of very exquisite art works, it is a source in nature is higher than that of natural and ideal form of artistic expression, is the people thought sublimation, people can put their thinking to using this decorative way. Decorative painting is on the basis of life, bold imagination, reasonable exaggeration. In the form of performance and decorative painting without any material constraints, as long as the performance is reasonable, any material can become its manifestations. Each country has its own language and script. China only with one Chinese character cultivation of the five thousand years of ancient culture, it is conceivable that presented by the Chinese character charm is irresistible, so in the swim word design of decorative painting in China and to Chinese characters as the center to creation. First through the research and analysis of the existing decorative painting, draw the decorative painting of the reference, provides a guideline for the design of the sketches and creative, secondly in the design, the use of Chinese traditional patterns, using carving techniques for font design, respectively from the materials, colors, graphics and presentation techniques China Tour carries on the analysis to the. Finally, the summary and design, in order to highlight the word tour of China as the theme.Key words: Chinese characters;Decorative painting;The word China Tour1 设计调研1.1 设计调研的目的及意义 原始社会,人类可以用树叶花卉制作服饰,如今,人们通过各种材料来进行装饰,从古至今这些装饰的行为都没有停止过。随着人们审美的提高和对美好事物的追求,装饰画已经被运用在生活中的各个地方,它已经成为人们精神生活与现代物质不可或缺的部分,它以不一样的材质、特点和形式使人们的审美心理与生活习惯发生着改变,人们在欣赏装饰画的同时,还可以放松心情,缓解压力。西方装饰画起源于法国西南部和西班牙北部的旧石器时代晚期的人类洞窟岩画,中国装饰画源于战国的帛画艺术,其魅力不可阻挡,这些都为我们研究装饰画提供了非常宝贵的经验。 通过设计调研,为我们更好的了解装饰画的背景和含义做了铺垫,对“字游中国”装饰画的制作加深了兴趣,使我们正确的认识了设计调研的真正价值,我们可以利用调研的结果来分析设计方案,还可以利用调研的结果解决设计中所出现的问题,也可以培养我们的观察问题和解决问题的能力,这些都为“字游中国”装饰画的创作提供了有力价值与创意灵感,本次的设计调研意义重大。1.2 现有主题作品类型分析 装饰画品种繁多,主要类型有剪纸画、油画、摄影画、木刻画、漆画、水彩画等等,“字游中国”装饰画属于刻漆画,为纯手工制作而成。在刻漆画中,以李人雄的作品最具代表性。他不仅首创了纯手工刻漆字画艺术,其作品还被编入了当代名家艺术鉴赏等书籍里,其作品分为了五个系列,分别是人物、山水、花鸟、书法和工笔。在其雕刻漆画作品中,透露的是一种闲适、淡雅、高洁的画面感,以优美的图案,清亮的色彩,赢得了人们的青睐。以下两幅作品是其的代表作(如图1.1所示),花鸟和山水的系列作品之一,画面颜色丰富,庄重典雅,与其他山水花鸟画不同的是,它是以刀代笔来完成的,以独特的艺术形式,给人以赏心悦目的感觉。图 1.1 花鸟画与山水画1.3 相关主题作品类型分析“字游中国”装饰绘画是属于刻漆画,刻漆画就是用刻刀在漆坯件上作画的工艺,是在制作上运用各种刀具刻成各类画面,根据画面要求进行填作色彩、贴金箔、撒金粉等装饰手法,刻漆是重要的装饰工艺品种之一,线条流畅、形象生动、色彩匀润、金色丰满、富丽堂煌是这种工艺的主要艺术风格(如图1.2所示)。既反映各类传统的题材内容,又能反映现代的各种画面。 图 1.2 刻漆装饰画装饰画宝鸭穿莲也充分的反映了“刻”这一工艺特点(如图1.3所示)。这幅装饰画凹凸有致,刻工整齐,颜色饱满,并运用了莲花和鸭子等图案,“莲”是代表着清廉,莲鸭谐音莲甲,寓意学子在考试中连中榜首之意。在工艺上,采用了刻灰、贴金和描色的手法,表现了一幅荷花被风吹拂,水面涟漪荡漾,鸭子水面嬉戏的和谐画面。色彩绚丽典雅,光泽柔和,其装饰艺术既有传统的民族特色,又不失经典时尚的魅力。 图 1.3 宝鸭穿莲1.4 设计定位 “字游中国”装饰绘画设计定位为传统、古典的装饰画,装饰画主要以礼、德、福、寿、和、永、孝、丰、年,这九个字来进行创作,这九个字更加能够代表中国的魅力,在版式的定位上,选用的是三个大版面为主,然后里面会有九个小版面,层次分明,在装饰画颜色的定位上,主要采用的是金和黑两种颜色来作为大色块,在三个底板上会选用三块不同颜色的布来进行衬托,在布的纹样上为中国传统的纹样,在局部的小块面上会用特殊材料进行拼贴和上色,其颜色上会选用布的颜色来进行呼应,颜色分别为绿色、黄色和蓝色,上色时会将颜色稍作修改,使其产生渐变的效果,使他们之间有相互的联系。2 创意筛选2.1 草图分析 在草图的制作上,主要对设计进行了三个方面的草图设计方案分析: 第一:“字游中国”装饰绘画的字体设计草图分析。在字体草图的设计上,首先字体一定要富有艺术感,在字体的选择上最开始选用了pop字体,制作出来给人的感觉太过于快餐化、西方化,没有中国字体的线条美和结构美,缺乏传统感与装饰感。于是决定选用书法字体,隶书有着多姿的笔画与美观的字形,给人们呈现出一种典雅古朴的感觉,它的种类也是非常多的,既有长形,也有扁形,笔画粗细均匀,会给人一种大方沉稳的感觉,根据入笔、行笔和收笔的过程中,写出来的粗细和轻重的变化,会给字体增加一些美感与艺术感。将礼、德、福、寿、和、永、孝、丰、年这九个字用毛笔进行书写,将写出来的字形再进行大幅度的修改与设计,便得出以下字形(如图2.1所示),其设计打破了原来字形完整的轮廓,将其中的某些笔画用点的形式来代替,增强了字体的装饰性,突出了装饰画的特点。 图 2.1 草图字形第二:“字游中国”装饰绘画的版式设计草图分析。在摆放形式上,最初有想过各种各样的摆放方式,大多都是复杂的形式,有趣的形式,并没有考虑过装饰画整体效果与其摆放形式的不合理感,由于装饰画本身的图案过于复杂,经过调整,最终选择了简单的形式,简单明了,不会与装饰画的复杂性发生冲突感,显得更加有主有次,有前有后。第三:“字游中国”装饰绘画的图案设计草图分析(如图2.2所示)。在图案的设计上,最初选用了西方的装饰纹样,经过绘画,发现图案并不能和每个字体联系起来,这样的装饰图案没有任何意义,经过修改,选用了中国式传统的纹样来进行设计,每个字形里的纹样都不一样,每个字形里的纹样是根据每个字的意思来进行设计的,例如,“年”这个字,里面的主要装饰内容为一条鱼,象征着年年有余的意思。 图 2.2 草图图案2.2 方案确定经过草图的绘画,最终确定了“字游中国”装饰画的完整方案。把汉字作为图形来进行装饰绘画,其字体一定要富有艺术美,所以选用了隶书来作为基本字形来进行创作,它线条优美,艺术特征明显,笔画生动形象,十分符合装饰画的装饰感,为了突出“字游中国”这个主题,则在众多汉字中选出了礼、德、福、寿、和、永、孝、丰、年这九个字,这九个字不仅概括了中国的传统美德,礼仪文化,还比较具有代表性。在图案的设计里,则偏重于中国传统的纹样和花卉图案,如牡丹、荷花和年画娃娃等。将这些图案和每个字形、字意联系起来后,确定了每个字形里的图案纹样。整体的颜色确定为黑色和金色,黑色的底更加能突出金色的字,后期会在过于单调的颜色中,增加一些其他颜色,给过于传统压抑的画面增添一些活力,在整体版式上,确定为三大块,九小块的组成形式,三大块为底板,九小块则挂在上面,突出主次,显得更加有层次感。经过对字形、图案、色彩、版式的改进与研究,最终确定了“字游中国”装饰画的方案(如图2.3所示)。 图 2.3 字形和纹样3 作品方案3.1 主题“字游中国”装饰绘画整体是走中国传统风格,在传统中会融入一点现代风格,对于“字游中国”装饰画的理解为,汉字就是中国的一部分,中国离不开汉字,所以,主要是围绕着字来进行创作的,始终不能偏离字这个主题,于是选出了礼、德、福、寿、和、永、孝、丰、年这九个字,这九个字很具有代表性,能够代表中国,在图案的纹样上选用了中国比较传统的装饰图案,例如,祥云,年画娃娃等。3.2 材料 每一幅装饰画的材料都是这整个装饰画的亮点,装饰画对材料的应用简单来说就是一种在创造的过程,这种过程是非常有意义的,人们通过寻找各种材料将它们进行加工,让其更加有美感和艺术感,使其的欣赏价值得到最大发挥,材料的贵贱根本不会影响装饰画的效果,只要运用得当,就能发挥其价值,通过考察,市面上的装饰画材料主要分为以下两种,一种是硬质材料,一种是软质材料,硬质材料主要有木材,钢铁,玻璃,瓷砖等,软质材料主要有线,麻,纤维,纸等。在“字游中国”装饰画在选材上,选用了黑色的木板进行雕刻,木板硬度适中,只要用刻刀进行雕刻,便可以雕出想要的图案,并在雕刻完的图案上洒上金粉,黑色和金色更加突出了中国传统的韵味,但由于黑色的面积过大,为了不让黑色给人感觉上造成压抑感,并用蓝色、黄色和绿色在圆点的部分上色,并用蛋壳拼贴出纹理(如图3.1所示),显得更有装饰性。 图 3.1 装饰材料3.3 色彩在色彩的运用上,在整个设计当中,黑色是整个装饰画中的主要颜色。在生活中黑色给人以稳重、神秘和严肃的感觉,黑色的亮度与饱和度为零,是没有色彩的,黑色比较消极,如果大面积的使用,会给人一种压抑的感觉,让人透不过气来,所以在使用颜色的过程中一定要把握好在整个画面中的面积,和与其他颜色的搭配,搭配的好,能很好地衬托出其他的色彩。在我的装饰画中,“字游中国”这个题目给我的感觉便是传统的,所以决定用黑色来表现出一种古典庄重的感觉,黑色为主色调。在字体的颜色上,选用了金色来进行搭配,金色比较亮,属于比较抢眼的色彩,在沉重的黑色中能够跳出来,可以把金色的高贵展现出来,经典优雅的黑色与金色的经典搭配,会显得层次更加丰富,同时又显得比较大气,有档次,很符合主题,两者之间相辅相成,缺一不可。3.4 图形在“字游中国”的装饰画中,每个图案都和汉字有着深刻的联系,每个图案并不是凭空想象出来的。礼,礼乐文化在中国有着很重要的地位,礼一直是中国几千年来教育子女良方和待人接物的准则,所以礼字的图案表现的是一位古人,双手握拳,身体微微鞠躬,表现出来一副礼貌谦逊的模样,周围则用祥云来进行装饰。德,在西周年间,西周确立了以德为核心,德不仅指人的品行修养,更代表了对天,对自然规律的体认与把握,所以德字的图案则用的是莲花,主要表现出一种莲花出淤泥而不染,濯清涟而不妖,不随世俗、洁身自爱的高贵品德。福,代表着一种福气,幸福,中国人喜欢把福字帖在门上,寓意着福来了,所以福字的图案描绘的是牡丹和年画娃娃,牡丹给人以富贵之感,福和富同音不同调,年画娃娃给人以吉祥之感,两者可以结合。寿,代表着长久的意思,祝寿、寿诞指的都是祝贺生日,表达对年长的前辈的敬意,所以寿字的图案以猴子祝寿这个形象为主,一只猴手捧寿桃,摆出一副祝寿的模样,给其增添了一丝乐趣。和,内涵丰富,意境深远,它渗透着中国人几千年待人接物的智慧和原则,体现了中国思想文化的博大精深。 刘志基.汉字与华夏文化M.四川:巴蜀书社,2006.所以和字的图案则是以两只和平鸽为主,象征着和平,安定。永,代表了永远、永久和永存,永字的图案是描绘的竹子,永字代表着时间,竹子会给人一种永垂不朽,四季常青之感。孝,做忠臣孝子,是为人的最高境界,也是中华民族的传统美德,所以孝字的图案为一位长者被搀扶的画面,显示出年轻人的孝心。丰,代表着丰收、丰美和丰盛,丰字的图案以麦穗,玉米等图案作为素材,来突出丰收的喜悦感。年,是最大最重要的时间节点,是一个轮回的开始,也是一切美好希望的开始,所以年字的图案是以一条鱼为主,表现出年年有余的感觉。这九个汉字的确定,最终确定了“字游中国”这个主题,也很好的诠释了”字游中国”这个主题。 3.5 表现技法表现技法主要是雕刻和戗金(如图3.2所示)。雕刻的种类有很多,雕刻主要就是雕、刻和塑三种方法来构成,可以通过木材、石膏、石块、玉块、粘土、金属等材料雕刻出艺术作品,创造出可触和可视的艺术形象,以此来表达自己的感受,反映社会生活。 王健.雕刻设计学与用J.北京:清华大学出版社,2008.在“字游中国”装饰画中,选用的材料为木材,即木雕,木雕的技法,可以理解为是一种做减法的过程,作者可以在创作中对空间和形象加以处理,简而言之,就是从外到内,通过刻刀一层层的除去废料,逐渐的将所要展现的形状挖刻出来,在这种技法的表现中,我们不仅能体会到作品带给我们的惊喜,还能体会到雕刻过程中的特殊韵味。戗金又名沉金,就是在雕刻的器物上刻出细的纹理,在纹理内洒金胶并填上金粉的一种过程,其目的就是使纹样变成金色的花纹。 图 3.2 雕刻和戗金3.6 设计说明“字游中国”装饰画设计主要从汉字出发,以其独特的字型魅力来进行创作。独特的方块字,形状美观,绝对可以称之为艺术,而且它蕴藏着丰富的审美和诗意,有着深厚的文化意蕴和魅力,在众多的方块字中,选出了九个更加能够代表中国魅力的汉字,分别是礼、德、福、寿、和、永、孝、丰、年,并将这九个汉字的外形轮廓进行设计,在设计的同时会将其字体的形态加以小改动,并在其轮廓的一部分用圆点来进行夸张,用来突出每个汉字的装饰性。在整体的设计上,决定采取三个版面组合的形式,每个版面上面是不同的图案,但整体来看却是统一的、吻合的,三个版面会分一个层次,产生叠加和遮盖的感觉,使其有大有小,有主有次,层次分明,不乏味不枯燥,富有趣味性。在材质的选择上,选用的是木板和蛋壳,字体的艺术形态会用蛋壳进行制作和拼贴,会使其更加的丰富,在整体的色彩上,将选用金色和黑色为主要色调,中国的金色和书法中墨的黑色更加能够体现“字游中国”这个主题。4 总结毕业设计是我们在大学学习阶段的最后一个环节,这个环节也是至关重要的,我们应该认真的去面对,这也是对我们四年所学知识的一个检验。在“字游中国”毕业设计的创作制作中,让我学到了好多,体会了很多,以前没有接触过装饰绘画,认为是很容易完成的任务,其实并没有这么的简单,从最初的草图到最终的方案确定,中间的历程都非常的艰辛,特别是在制作的过程中,复杂的雕刻工艺,让初学者很难下手,但通过自己不断的查阅书籍和导师的悉心指导,最大限度地利用理论层面的方法来指导自己的雕刻艺术创作,最后所有困难都迎刃而解。虽然在毕业设计的过程中遇到了很多的困难,但通过这次设计,也学到了以前从来没有学到的工艺手法,想通过一次的创作所领会的雕刻技术的真正精华是远远不够的,还需要慢慢去体会。也感受到自己应用基础知识及专业知识解决问题的能力有了很大的提高,对培养我们的自学能力和独立工作能力也有了很大的帮助。这次的毕业设计也为以后工作做了很好的铺垫,总之,这次的毕业设计让我受益匪浅。参 考 文 献1 孟世凯.中国文字发展史M.台湾:台湾文津出版社,2001(7).2 杨润陆.现代汉字学M.北京:长城出版社,2000(6). 3 梁东汉.汉字的结构及其流变M.上海教育出版社,2003.4 刘志基.汉字与华夏文化M.四川:巴蜀书社,2006.5 邓福星,王菊生.造型艺术原理M.哈尔滨:黑龙江美术出版社,2009.6 王琥.装饰艺术丛书M.重庆:重庆出版社,2003.7 陈敬良,戴建华.现代装饰画艺术M.湖南:湖南人民出版社,2007.8 庞薰琹.中国历代装饰画研究M.上海:上海人民出版社,2011.9 肖禾.概论装饰M.湖南:株洲工学院学报,2013.10 弘岂.现代装饰绘画技法M.河南:河南美术出版社,2011.11 李明伟.装饰绘画M.广西:广西美术出版社,2007.12 王健.雕刻设计学与用J.北京:清华大学出版社,2008.13 杨威.雕刻技术J.北京:北京大学出版社,2010.14 王连严.汉字文化J.北京:长城出版社,2008.15 张充思.设计艺术M.北京:北京理工大学出版社,2010.附 录 致 谢到此阶段,毕业论文已完成,这次论文撰写是我大学期间最难忘的经历,不仅让我更好地整理大学期间所学的的专业知识,也让接触到更多课外的知识,大大地开阔了我的视野,也让令我积累了经验,懂得了做任何事情都要严谨细致,一丝不苟,遇到困难要积极寻找解决的方法。在此也要感谢论文指导李娟老师和其他给予帮助的教师;感谢协助完成研究工作和提供便利条件的组织或个人;感谢给予转载和引用权的资料、图片、文献、研究思想和设想的所有者。请删除以下内容,O(_)O谢谢!The origin of taxation in the United States can be traced to the time when the colonists were heavily taxed by Great Britain on everything from tea to legal and business documents that were required by the Stamp Tax. The colonists disdain for this taxation without representation (so-called because the colonies had no voice in the establishment of the taxes) gave rise to revolts such as the Boston Tea Party. However, even after the Revolutionary War and the adoption of the U.S. Constitution, the main source of revenue for the newly created states was money received from customs and excise taxes on items such as carriages, sugar, whiskey, and snuff. Income tax first appeared in the United States in 1862, during the Civil War. At that time only about one percent of the population was required to pay the tax. A flat-rate income tax was imposed in 1867. The income tax was repealed in its entirety in 1872. Income tax was a rallying point for the Populist party in 1892, and had enough support two years later that Congress passed the Income Tax Act of 1894. The tax at that time was two percent on individual incomes in excess of $4,000, which meant that it reached only the wealthiest members of the population. The Supreme Court struck down the tax, holding that it violated the constitutional requirement that direct taxes be apportioned among the states by population (pollock v. farmers loan & trust, 158 U.S. 601, 15 S. Ct. 912, 39 L. Ed. 1108 1895). After many years of debate and compromise, the sixteenth amendment to the Constitution was ratified in 1913, providing Congress with the power to lay and collect taxes on income without apportionment among the states. The objectives of the income tax were the equitable distribution of the tax burden and the raising of revenue. Since 1913 the U.S. income tax system has become very complex. In 1913 the income tax laws were contained in eighteen pages of legislation; the explanation of the tax reform act of 1986 was more than thirteen hundred pages long (Pub. L. 99-514, Oct. 22, 1986, 100 Stat. 2085). Commerce Clearing House, a publisher of tax information, released a version of the Internal Revenue Code in the early 1990s that was four times thicker than its version in 1953. Changes to the tax laws often reflect the times. The flat tax of 1913 was later replaced with a graduated tax. After the United States entered world war i, the War Revenue Act of 1917 imposed a maximum tax rate for individuals of 67 percent, compared with a rate of 13 percent in 1916. In 1924 Secretary of the Treasury Andrew W. Mellon, speaking to Congress about the high level of taxation, stated, The present system is a failure. It was an emergency measure, adopted under the pressure of war necessity and not to be counted upon as a permanent part of our revenue structure. The high rates put pressure on taxpayers to reduce their taxable income, tend to destroy individual initiative and enterprise, and seriously impede the development of productive business. Ways will always be found to avoid taxes so destructive in their nature, and the only way to save the situation is to put the taxes on a reasonable basis that will permit business to go on and industry to develop. Consequently, the Revenue Act of 1924 reduced the maximum individual tax rate to 43 percent (Revenue Acts, June 2, 1924, ch. 234, 43 Stat. 253). In 1926 the rate was further reduced to 25 percent. The Revenue Act of 1932 was the first tax law passed during the Great Depression (Revenue Acts, June 6, 1932, ch. 209, 47 Stat. 169). It increased the individual maximum rate from 25 to 63 percent, and reduced personal exemptions from $1,500 to $1,000 for single persons, and from $3,500 to $2,500 for married couples. The national industrial recovery act of 1933 (NIRA), part of President franklin d. roosevelts new deal, imposed a five percent excise tax on dividend receipts, imposed a capital stock tax and an excess profits tax, and suspended all deductions for losses (June 16, 1933, ch. 90, 48 Stat. 195). The repeal in 1933 of the eighteenth amendment, which had prohibited the manufacture and sale of alcohol, brought in an estimated $90 million in new liquor taxes in 1934. The social security act of 1935 provided for a wage tax, half to be paid by the employee and half by the employer, to establish a federal retirement fund (Old Age Pension Act, Aug. 14, 1935, ch. 531, 49 Stat. 620). The Wealth Tax Act, also known as the Revenue Act of 1935, increased the maximum tax rate to 79 percent, the Revenue Acts of 1940 and 1941 increased it to 81 percent, the Revenue Act of 1942 raised it to 88 percent, and the Individual Income Tax Act of 1944 raised the individual maximum rate to 94 percent. The post-World War II Revenue Act of 1945 reduced the individual maximum tax from 94 percent to 91 percent. The Revenue Act of 1950, during the korean war, reduced it to 84.4 percent, but it was raised the next year to 92 percent (Revenue Act of 1950, Sept. 23, 1950, ch. 994, Stat. 906). It remained at this level until 1964, when it was reduced to 70 percent. The Revenue Act of 1954 revised the Internal Revenue Code of 1939, making major changes that were beneficial to the taxpayer, including providing for child care deductions (later changed to credits), an increase in the charitable contribution limit, a tax credit against taxable retirement income, employee deductions for business expenses, and liberalized depreciation deductions. From 1954 to 1962, the Internal Revenue Code was amended by 183 separate acts. In 1974 the employee retirement income security act (ERISA) created protections for employees whose employers promised specified pensions or other retirement contributions (Pub. L. No. 93-406, Sept. 2, 1974, 88 Stat. 829). ERISA required that to be tax deductible, the employers plan contribution must meet certain minimum standards as to employee participation and vesting and employer funding. ERISA also approved the use of individual retirement accounts (IRAs) to encourage tax-deferred retirement savings by individuals. The Economic Recovery Tax Act of 1981 (ERTA) provided the largest tax cut up to that time, reducing the maximum individual rate from 70 percent to 50 percent (Pub. L. No. 97-34, Aug. 13, 1981, 95 Stat. 172). The most sweeping tax changes since world war ii were enacted in the Tax Reform Act of 1986. This bill was signed into law by President ronald reagan and was designed to equalize the tax treatment of various assets, eliminate tax shelters, and lower marginal rates. Conservatives wanted the act to provide a single, low tax rate that could be applied to everyone. Although this single, flat rate was not included in the final bill, tax rates were reduced to 15 percent on the first $17,850 of income for singles and $29,750 for married couples, and set at 28 to 33 percent on remaining income. Many deductions were repealed, such as a deduction available to two-income married couples that had been used to avoid the marriage penalty (a greater tax liability incurred when two persons filed their income tax return as a married couple rather than as individuals). Although the personal exemption exclusion was increased, an exemption for elderly and blind persons who itemize deductions was repealed. In addition, a special capital gains rate was repealed, as was an investment tax credit that had been introduced in 1962 by President john f. kennedy. The Omnibus Budget Reconciliation Act of 1993, the first budget and tax act enacted during the Clinton administration, was vigorously debated, and passed with only the minimum number of necessary votes. This law provided for income tax rates of 15, 28, 31, 36, and 39.6 percent on varying levels of income and for the taxation of social security income if the taxpayer receives other income over a certain level. In 2001 Congress enacted a major income tax cut at the urging of President george w. bush. Over the course of 11 years the law reduces marginal income tax rates across all levels of income. The 36 percent rate will be lowered to 33 percent, the 31 percent rate to 28 percent, the 28 percent rate to 25 percent. In addition, a new bottom 10 percent rate was created. Since the early 1980s, a flat-rate tax system rather than the graduated bracketed method has been proposed. (The graduated bracketed method is the one that has been used since graduated taxes were introduced: the percentage of tax differs based on the amount of taxable income.) The flat-rate system would impose one rate, such as 20 percent, on all income and would eliminate special deductions, credits, and exclusions. Despite firm support by some, the flat-rate tax has not been adopted in the United States. Reg

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