英语语言学教程最新课件3词汇.ppt

Chapter 3 Lexicon,1. What is word,Word: a unit of expression that has universal intuitive recognition by native-speakers, whether spoken or written 1.1 Three senses of “word”: A physically definable unit: Word may be seen as a cluster of sound segments or letters between tow pauses or blanks. Phonological and orthographic(书写上) Problem: When liaison and contracted forms occur,2) Word both as a general term and as a specific term: boy, boys check, checks, checked, checking Lexeme(词位): the abstract unit underlying the smallest unit in the lexical system of a language, which appears in different grammatical contexts Write-write, writes, wrote, writing, written Fat-fat, fatter, fattest,3) A grammatical unit: sentence clause phrase word morpheme Problem: free morphemes or words: black, bird, air, craft, town, hall,1.2 Identification of words,1) Stability: the constituent parts of a complex word cannot be rearranged chairmanmanchair The chairman looked at the audience. The audience looked at the chairman. 2) Relative uninterruptibility: New elements cannot be inserted into a word even when there are several parts in a word. disappointment dis + appoint + ment Paul, (Jane) and Rebecca are my classmates.,3) A minimum free form: the smallest unit that can constitute a complete utterance by itself, eg -Is Jane coming tonight? -Possibly. Hi. Wonderful.,1.3 Classification of words,Variable vs. invariable words: Variable words: One could find ordered and regular series of grammatically different word forms; on the other hand, part of the word remains constant follow, follows, following, followed; mat, mats Invariable words: those words such as since, when, seldom, through, hello. They do not have inflective endings. 2) Grammatical words vs. lexical words: Grammatical words: express grammatical meanings, such as conjunctions, prepositions, articles, pronouns Lexical words: have lexical meanings, those which refer to substance, action and quality, such as nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs.,The lexical words carry the main content of a language (content words) and the grammatical words serve to link the different parts of a sentence together(function words). 3) Closed-class words vs. open-class words: Grammatical-lexical words closed-class-open-class words Closed-class: a word whose membership is fixed or limited. New members are not regularly added. Pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions, articles, etc. Open-class: A word whose membership is in principle infinite or unlimited. Nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs Note: The distinction is not quite as clear-cut as it seems. Prepositions: regarding, throughout, out of, according to, with regard to, in spite of, be means of Auxiliary verbs,4) Word class: It is close to the notion of Parts of Speech in traditional grammar. Eight or nine word classes are established: noun, pronoun, adjective, verb, adverb, preposition, conjunction, interjection, article.,Some new categories: Particles(助词): the infinite marker(to), the negative marker(not), the subordinate units in phrasal verbs (get by, do up, look back) b. Auxiliaries(助动词): used to be regarded as verbs, linguists tend to define them as a separate word class rather than verbs.,c. Pro-form(替代形式): refers to the closed sets of items which can be used to substitute for a nominal group (名词词组)or a single noun. Pro-adjective: Your pen is red. So is mine. Pro-verb: He knows English better than he did. Pro-adverb: He hopes hell win and I hope so too. Pro-locative(代处所词): James hiding there, behind the door.,d. Determiners(限定词): words which are used before the noun acting as head of a noun phrase, and determine the kind of reference the noun phrase has, e.g. the, a(n), some, all Quirk, et al. (1985: 253): three subclasses of determiners: Predeterminers: all, both, half, double, twice, three times, one-third, one-fifth Central determiners: a, an, the, this, that, these, those, every, each, some, any, no, either, neither, my, our, your, his, her, its, their,Postdeterminers: cardinal numerals(基数词), ordinal numerals(序数词), general ordinals(一般顺序词): next, last, past, (an)other, additional and other quantifiers like many, a few, several, much, little, a lot of, plenty of, a great deal of, a great number of When different sub-classes of determiners occur together, they follow the order of predeterminers + central determiners + postdeterminers. their all trouble all their trouble,Within each subclass, the members are usually exclusive of each other. *their all trouble *five the all boys *all this boy *all both girls But ordinal numerals and general ordinals may occur before cardinal numerals. the first two days another three weeks,2. The formation of word,2.1 Morpheme(语素) & morphology(形态学) Chairman: chair, man Townhall: town, hall Boys: boy, -s Checking: check, -ing Disappointment: dis-, appoint, -ment The components of a word are known as morphemes. They themselves cannot be further analyzed.,Morpheme: the smallest unit of language in terms of relationship between expression and content, a unit that cannot be divided into further smaller units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning, whether it is lexical or grammatical. Morphology studies the internal structure of words, and the rules by which words are formed.,2.2 Types of morphemes,1) Free morpheme & bound morpheme(自由语素和黏着语素) In terms of their capacity of occurring alone Free morphemes: those which may occur alone, i.e. those which may constitute words by themselves dog, nation, close All monomorphemic words are free morphemes.,Compounds: polymorphemic words which consist wholly of free morphemes, paymaster, moonwalk, babysit, godfather, sunflower Bound morphemes: those which cannot occur alone distempered: dis-, temper, -ed,2) Root, affix & stem(词根、词缀和词干) Poly-morphemic words may be divided into roots and affixes. A root is the base form of a word that cannot further be analyzed without total loss of identity. Internationalism All words contain a root morpheme. An affix is the collective term for the type of morpheme that can be used only when added to another morpheme (the root or stem). Affix is naturally bound.,Affixes are limited in number in a language, and are generally classified into three subtypes, prefix(前缀), suffix(后缀), and infix(中缀). Prefix: para-, mini- un- Suffix: -ise, -tion Infix: foot/ feet, goose/geese,A root may be free or bound, but an affix is naturally bound. First, free root morphemes are those that can stand by themselves and are the base forms of words, e.g. black (black, blackbird, blackboard, blacksmith). Free root morphemes are potentially unlimited in number in a language. Second, there are relatively a few bound root morphemes in English, e.g. -ceive ( receive, perceive, conceive); -mit (remit, permit, commit, submit); -tain ( retain, contain, maintain); -cur( incur, recur, occur),Third, a few English roots may have both free and bound variants. Sleep and child slept and children A stem is any morpheme or combination of morphemes to which an inflectional affix(屈折词缀) can be added. Friend- in friends, and friendship- in friendships,3) Inflectional affix generate, generation,Second, inflectional affixes do not change the word class of the word they attach to, such as flower, flowers, whereas derivational affixes might or might not, such as small-smallness, brother-brotherhood. Derivational affixes often change the lexical meaning.,Third, whether one should add inflectional affixes or not depends very often on the other factors within the phrase or sentence. e.g. The boy likes to navigate on the internet. Derivational affixes are more often based on simple meaning distinctions. Clever, cleverness,In English, inflectional affixes are mostly suffixes, which are always word final. drums, walks, Marys Derivational affixes can both be prefixes and suffixes. suburban, depart, online slaver, teacher, workable,2.3 Word-formation,Two fields morphology (形态学) concerns: the study of inflections INFLECTIONAL MORPHOLOGY the study of word formation LEXICAL or DERIVATIONAL MORPHOLOGY,1) Inflection: the manifestation of grammatical relationships through the addition of inflectional affixes, such as number, person, finiteness(有定性), aspect(体)and case（格), which do not change the grammatical class of the stems to which they are attached. Nominal forms: boys, boys Verb forms: wants, wanted, wanting Adjective/adverb forms: smaller, smallest,2) Word formation: the process of how words are formed Two sub-types: The compositional type COMPOUND The derivational type DERIVATION,i. Compound: those words that consist of more than one lexical morpheme, the way to join two separate words to produce a single form icecream, sunrise, paperbag, cloakroom, cupboard, drugstore, railway In compounds, the lexical morphemes can be of different word classes. Two or more free roots combine to make a new word. Noun compounds: daybreak, playboy, haircut, windmill Verb compounds: brainstorm, lipread, babysit Adjective compounds: gray-haired, insect-eating, dutyfree Preposition compounds: into, throughout,Compounds can be further divided into two kinds: the endocentric compound (向心复合词) the exocentric compound(离心复合词) Endocentric: one element serves as the head, the relationship of “a kind of”; eg self-control: a kind of control armchair: a kind of chair Exocentric: there is no head, so not a relationship of “a kind of something”, eg scarecrow: not a kind of crow breakneck: not a kind of neck,Ways of writing a compound: Solid: Compounds can be written as a single word: wardrobe, bodyguard, seashore. Hyphenated:They can also be joined with a hyphen: wedding-ring, traffic-light, simple-minded. Open:Some can be written with ordinary spaces between the two parts: washing machine, traffic island, counter revolutionary. Free variation: businessman, business-man, business man winebottle, wine-bottle, wine bottle,ii. Derivation: Derivation shows the relation between roots and affixes. un + conscious unconscious nation + al national national + ize nationalize nationalize + ation nationalization Derivations can make the word class of the original either changed or unchanged.,Class-changing: NV: lengthen, hospitalize, discard NA: friendly, delightful, speechless VN: worker, employee, inhabitant VA: acceptable, adorable AN: rapidness, rapidity AV: deafen, sweeten AdjAdv: exactly, quickly,Class-preserving: NN: nonsmoker, ex-wife, booklet VV: disobey, unfasten AA: grayish, irrelevant,Forms derived from derivation are relatively large and potentially open. pre- , -able In English there is usually one inflectional affix per word, but multiple derivational affixes are allowed. monumental, transcendental, capability, musicality, accountancy, dependency, characterization, joyfulness, silliness, effectively, beautifully, delightfully, Americanism Some words can carry both prefixes and suffixes. Bipartisan, abbreviation, bigamist, continuously, contradiction,2.4 Sememe vs. Morpheme, and Phoneme vs. Morpheme,1) Sememe vs. morpheme SEMEME is the smallest component of meaning. e.g. The morpheme s has only one sememe: PLURALITY, meaning more than one. The relationship between sememe and morpheme, five mapping and non-mapping occasions: i. One morpheme vs. one sememe One morpheme has only one sememe. e.g. less, meaning WITHOUT fearless, careless, ceaseless, countless, doubtless, shameless, faceless, speechless, faceless,ii. One morpheme vs. more than one sememe One morpheme may have two or more than two sememes. e.g. a- three sememes arise, await awash, ablush atypical, asymmetry,iii. One sememe vs. more than one morpheme One sememe is expressed with two or more than two morphemes. 表示no和non意义的语素除了a-之外，还有其他的语素，例如e-, il-, ne-, un-等 erostrate, illicit, neither, untidy,iv. Morphemes that have no specific sememe There are also morphemes that have no specific sememe, but may help change grammatical and semantic categories. e.g. en- enjoy,v. Function changes in both sememe and morpheme without morpheme change There are may also be no morpheme change in a word, but both the grammatical and the semantic categories would change according to the context it occurs. e.g. run run a company, in a short run,2) Morpheme vs. Phoneme Phoneme: the smallest meaningful unit of sound Morpheme: the smallest meaningful unit in grammar The correspondence between the two levels of language: MORPHONOLOGY or MORPHONEMICS- a branch of linguistics that refers to the analysis and classification of the phonological factors that affect the morpheme forms, and correspondingly, the morphological factors that affect the phoneme forms. So, it studies the interrelationship between phonology and morphology.,There are several occasions of the relationship: i. A single phoneme vs. a single morpheme A single phoneme may represent a single morpheme, but they are not identical. See Ex. 3 - 20 on Page 70. ii. A single morpheme vs. multiple phoneme Morphemes may also be represented by phonological structures other than a single phoneme. Morphemes may be monophonemic, monosyllabic or polysyllabic. See Ex. 3 - 21 on Page 70.,iii. Allomorph(语素变体): Some morphemes have a single form in all contexts. Dog, bark, cat But a morpheme may have alternate shapes or phonetic forms. e.g. the morpheme that express plurality in English. See Ex. 3-23 on Page 71.,Like phoneme, morpheme is an abstract unit. Morphemes are put between braces like . Some morphemic forms represent different morphemes and thus have sememes.,iv. Morphemic conditions Morpheme shapes vary according to both phonological conditions and to the conditions of their own. There are two cases: a) Phonologically conditioned: The form or shape of morphemes may be conditioned by phonological factors. injustice inperfect inefficient impenetrable infirm impossible,b) Morphologically conditioned: Morphemes can also be conditioned by morphological factors. Three requirements : First, all the allomorphs should have the same sememe, e.g. the plural morpheme Second, all the allomorphs should be in complementary distribution. Third, allomorphs that have the same sememe should occur in parallel formation. See Ex. 3-26 on Page 72.,3. Lexical Change,3.1 Lexical change proper (特有的词汇变化) 1) Invention(新创词语): Kodak, Coke, nylon, granola 2) Blending(混成法): a complex form of compounding, in which two words are blended by joining the initial part of the first word and the final part of the second word, or by joining the initial parts of the two words,transfer+resistortransistor smoke+fogsmog motorist+hotelmotel breakfast+lunchbrunch modulator+demodulatormodem dance+exercisedancercise advertisement+editorialadvertorial education+entertainmentedutainment information+commercialinfomercial,3) Abbreviation (缩写词): Clipping(截断法) A new word is created by cutting the final part, cutting the initial part, and cutting both the initial and final parts accordingly. Back-clippings: ad(vertisement), chimp(anzee), deli(catessen), exam(ination), hippo(potamus), lab(oratory), piano(forte), reg(ulation)s Fore-clippings: (ham)burger, (omni)bus, (violin)cello, (heli)copter, (alli)gator, (tele)phone, (earth)quake. Fore-and-aft clippings: (in)flu(enza), (de)tec(tive). Also used for English names: BobRobert, LizElizabeth Also popular in education: chemchemistry, examexamination, gymgymnasium, lablaboratory, mathmathematics,4) Acronym (缩写词): made up from the first letters of the name of an organization, which has a heavily modified headword CIA - Central Intelligence Agency EEC-European Economic Community UNESCO- United nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization WTO- World Trade Organization WB- World Bank This process is widely used in shortening extremely long words of word groups in science, technology and other special fields. Aids: Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome COBOL: common business oriented language CD-ROM: compact disc read-only memory Radar: radio detecting and ranging SARS: severe acute respiratory syndrome WASP: white Anglo-Saxon protestant,5) Back-formation(逆构词法): an abnormal type of word formation by which a shorter word is derived by deleting an imagined affix from a longer form already in the language gangling gangle editor edit peddler peddle hawker hawk enthusiasm enthuse laser lase calmative calm free association free-associate,6) Analogical creation (类推构词): It can account for the co-existence of two forms, regular and irregular, in the conjugation of some English verbs. From irregular to regular: work: wrought worked beseech: besought beseeched slay: slew slayed?,7) Borrowing (借词): Borrow from other languages. Greek, Latin, French, Spanish, Arabic and other languages French: administration, parliament, public, revenue, tax; court, crime, defendant, judge, jury, justice, pardon, sue; army, enemy, guard, officer, peace, soldier, war; clergy, faith, prayer, religion, sermon, service; coat, costume, dress, fashion, frock, jewel, lace; boil, dinner, feast, fry, roast, supper, toast; bargain, butcher, customer, grocer, money, price, value; art, college, music, poet, prose, story, study,Latin: admit, client, conviction, custody, discuss, equal, index, infinite, intellect, library, medicine, minor, opaque, prosecute, pulpit, scribe, scripture, simile, testimony Greek: acme, bathos, catastrophe, cosmos, criterion, idiosyncrasy, kudos, misanthrope, pathos, pylon, therm,Spanish and Portuguese: anchovy, armada, banana, barbecue, cafeteria, cannibal, canoe, canyon, cargo, cask, chilli (or chili), chocolate, cigar, cocaine, cockroach, cocoa, desperado, embargo, guitar, mosquito, negro, port (wine), potato, ranch, renegade, sherry, siesta, tango, tank, tobacco, tomato, vanilla,Italian: aria, artichoke, bandit, broccoli, cameo, carnival, casino, concerto, duet, finale, ghetto, graffiti (singular graffito), incognito, inferno, influenza, larva, libretto, m