自考英语国家概况汇总版.doc.doc

,k nkk Chapter 1 Land and People 一、本章知识点 1.重点： Different names for Britain and its parts 2.难点、考点： Britains official name British Commonwealth 三、课本内容 （一） Different names for Britain and its parts Strictly speaking, the British Isles, Great Britain and England are all geographical names. 1. The British Isles are made up of two large islands and hundreds of small islands. （ see map of UK） The two large islands are Great Britain and Ireland. Great Britain is the larger of these two islands. 2. The official name of the United Kingdom is the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland. But it is too much of a mouthful to say such a long name for a country, so people just say Britain, the United Kingdom or simply U.K. （ UK） capital: London The Republic of Ireland 爱尔兰共和国 has been an independent republic since 1949 and its capital is Dublin. 3. There are three political divisions on the island of Great Britain: England, Scotland, and Wales. England is the largest, most populous and richest, so people tend to use “England” and “English” when they mean “Britain” and “British”. 4. The British Empire 大英帝国 : one fourth of the worlds people and one fourth of the worlds land area. 5. The British Empire gradually disappeared and it was replaced by the British Commonwealth or the Commonwealth of Nations in 1931. The Commonwealth is a free association of independent countries that were once colonies of Britain. Member nations are joined together economically and have certain trading arrangements. The Commonwealth has no special powers. The decision to become a member of the Commonwealth is left to each nation.如果出简答 ,则只需要第 一句话 . （二） Others Geographical Features 1. The United Kingdom is separated from the rest of Europe by the English Channel in the south and the North Sea in the east. The English Channel lies between Britain and France. （ p.4） Taiwan Strait：台湾海峡 2. “Chunnel”: channel + tunnel, opened to traffic in 1994. （ p.5） Smog: smoke +fog Mortel: motor +hotel Kidult: kid +adult 3. The highest mountain in Britain: Ben Nevis, 1,343m in Scotland. （ p.6） The longest river: the Severn River （ 338 km） The second largest and most important river: the Thames River （ 336 km） （ p.7） 4. 90% of the population is urban and only 10% is rural. （ p.11） 5. The English are Anglo-Saxons 盎格鲁撒克逊人 , but the Scots, Welsh and Irish are Celts凯尔特人 . （ p.12） 四、总结 Britains official name British Commonwealth Chapter 2 The Origins of a Nation （ 5000 BC AD 1066） 一、本章知识点 1.重点： Arrival and settlement of the Celts Basis of modern English race: the Anglo-Saxons The Viking and Danish invasions King Alfred and his contributions The Norman Conquest and its consequences 2.难点、考点： the Anglo-Saxons: Heptarchy 七王国 ； foundation of the English state King Alfred Norman Conquest 三、课本内容 （一） Arrival and settlement of the Celts （ p.17） 1. began to arrive about 700 BC 2. originally have come from eastern and central Europe, now France, Belgium and southern Germany 3. three main waves1st. Gaels 盖尔人 , about 600 BC； 2nd. Brythons 布列吞人 , 400 BC, （ Britain） ； 3rd. Belgae 比利其人 , 150 BC, （ Belgium） . Gaelic：盖尔语 4. The Celtic tribes are ancestors of Highland Scots, the Irish and the Welsh, and their languages are the basis of both Welsh and Gaelic. 5. Religion: Druidism: The Celts religion was Druidism. The Druids worshipped and performed their rites in woods by the light of the moon. 6. Roman Britain （ 55 BC AD 410） p.18: British recorded history begins with the Roman invasion. For nearly 400 years Britain was under the Roman occupation. The Roman capital was London （ Londinium） . （二） Basis of modern English race: the Anglo-Saxons （ p.20-23） 1. mid-5th century, three Teutonic tribes: Jutes 朱特人 （ from southern Denmark） , Saxons, and Angles （ both from northern Germany） ； Angles were to give their name to the English people. 2. Heptarchy 七王国 seven principal kingdoms set up by the Anglo-Saxons: Kent, Essex, Sussex, Wessex, East Anglia, Marcia and Northumbria. （ 英国版的战国七雄 ） Monarchy：君主制 The Anglo-Saxon tribes部落 were constantly at war with one another, each trying to get the upper hand, so that the kingdoms were often broken up and often pieced together again. 3. In 829, Egbert 伯特 became an overlord of all the English. 4. Teutonic 日耳曼人的 religion: Tiuwar, Wodenheaven, ThorStorms, FreyaPeace 5. St. Augustine 奥古斯丁 the first Archbishop of Canterbury.坎特伯雷 大教主 6. Anglo-Saxons laid the foundations of the English state: divide the country into shires（郡） , later counties； the narrow-strip, three-field farming system（三田轮作） ； manorial 庄园 system； Witan（ 议会） （ council or meeting of the wisemen, 贤人会议） , the basis of the Privy Council 枢密院 which still exists today. （三） The Viking and Danish invasions （ p.23-24） 1. from the end of 8th century, Norwegian Vikings and Danes from Denmark 挪威海盗和丹麦人 2. The Danes gained the “Danelaw”（丹麦法区） , the north and east of England. 3. The Witan chose Canute, the Danish Leader, as king in 1016. Canute made England part of a Scandinavian empire. （四） King Alfred and his contributions 1. King of Wessex （ 871-899） （抗击北欧海盗入侵的国家英雄） 2. his contributions: “the father of the British navy”； reorganized the fyrd英国民兵 （ the Saxon army） ； translated into English Bedes Ecclesiastical History of the English People； established schools and formulated a legal system. 3. “Alfred the Great” （五） The Norman Conquest and its consequences （ p.24-25） 1. King Edward, known as “the Confessor”, was far more Norman than Saxon 心向着诺曼第人 (法国 ),而不是撒克逊人 (英国 ). 2. 4 men laid claim to the English throne: the King of Norway, the Duke of Normandy, Tostig and Harold （ two brothers of Edwards Queen） ； 4 人对英国有继承权 ,挪威国王 ,诺曼底公爵和爱德华国王王后的两个兄弟 3. Oct. 14, 1066, Hastings, Anglo-Saxon England perished with Harolds death.因为 Harold 的死亡 ,英国被诺曼人打败 4. William was crowned King of England on Christmas Day. 5. William the Conqueror: the best-known event in English history； the feudal system was completely established.法国诺曼第人征服后 ,威廉成为英国国王 ,成为英语历史最著明的事件 ,并且完本建立了封建制度 . 四、总结 : 历史上定居和入侵英国的不同民族： Celts, （ Romans） Anglo-Saxons, Viking/Dales, and Normans Chapter 3 the shaping of the nation1066-1381 本章知识点 1 重点 : 1 Englands feudalism under the rule of William the Conqueror； 2 Contents and the significance of the Great Charter； 3 Origins of the English Parliament； 4 The Hundred Years War with France and its consequences； 5 Consequences of the Black Death； 2 难点 考点 : English feudalism: Domesday book ； Great Charter； English Parliament； 3 课本内容 i. Englands feudalism under the rule of William the Conqueror 1. Under William, the feudal system in England was completely established. According to this system, the King owned the land personally. William gave his barons 男爵 large estates in England in return for a promise of military service and a proportion of the lands produce. The barons parceled out 分配 land to the lesser nobles, knights and freemen, also in return for goods and services. At the bottom of the feudal scale were the villains of serfs, unfree peasants who were little better than slaves. Class structure 等级结构 : the king ； barons-tenants-in-chief； lesser nobles, knights, and freemen； villainsserfs (补充 : barons oath of allegiance 誓词 for the king: “we who are as good as you swear to you, who are no better than we, to accept you as our king and sovereign lord provided you observe all our statutes and laws； if not, no.”国王与贵族在封建法规所规定的权力和义务范围内平起平坐 .) 2. Replace the Witan with the Grand Council (大会议 ) William replaced the Witan, the council of the Anglo-Saxon Kings, with the Grand Council of his new tenants-in-chief, on which they were required to serve when summoned. 3. Domesday Book: record of lands, tenants, and their possessions, for taxes. Not unlike the Book of Doom. (末日审判书 ) In order to have a reliable record of all his lands, his tenants and their possessions and to discover how much they could be called upon to pay by way of taxes, William sent his clerks to compile a property record known as Domesday Book because it seemed to the English not unlike the Book of Doom to be used by the greatest feudal lord of all on Judgment Day. 注 : William took a deep interest in the development of the church in England. His policy towards the church was to keep it completely under his control, but at the same time to uphold its power. But he took care to maintain his own independence. 4. Henry , founder of the Plantagenet dynasty (金雀花王朝 ), ruled for 35 years. Henry, founder of the Angevin Dynasty, usually known as the Plantagenet dynasty, became king and went on to rule for 35 years. In Henry s reign a common law, which over-rode local law and private law, was gradually established in place of the customs of the manor which had previously varied not only from shire to shire but even from one community to another. The common law is the unwritten law common to the whole people as distinct from law governing only sections of it, and is “case-made”, i.e., based on precedent judgments, and derived from acknowledged custom. In Henrys day the jury system-whose origins can be traced to primitive trials in which witnesses were called forward to swear to the innocence of the accused-was at last replacing old English ordeals by fire and water and old Norman trials by battle. ii. contents and the significance of the Great charter 1. Crusades (十字军东征 ) . The result was confrontation between king John and his barons in 1215. 2. Magna Carta, 1215 The barons charter, or Magna Carta as it came to be known, was presented by a delegation of their class to the king and his advisers in the summer of 1215 at a conference at Runnymede, an island in the Thames four miles down stream from Windsor. 3. contents-63 clauses: No tax should be made without the approval of the Grand Council； no freeman should be arrested, imprisoned, or deprived of his property except by the law of the land； the Church should possess all its rights, together with freedom of elections； London and other towns should retain their ancient rights and privileges, and there should be the same weights and measures throughout the country. Although Magna Carta has long been popularly regarded as the foundation of English liberties, it was a statement of the feudal and legal relationship between the Crown and the barons, a guarantee of the freedom of the Church and a limitation of the powers of the king. 4. significance: regarded as the foundation of English liberties； the spirit- the limitation of the powers of the king iii. origins of the English Parliament 1. king John and his son Henry III defied Magna Carta. The barons, under Simon de Montfort, rebelled. King john defied Magna Carta. The barons, under Simon de Montfort, Henry III s brother-in-law, rebelled. 2. provisions of Oxford -Grand Council of 24 members, half to be nominated by the barons themselves； a permanent body of advisors, without whose authority the king could not act. A civil war broke out between the kings supporters, mostly foreign mercenaries, and the baronial army led by Simon de Montfort. 1264 the king was defeated by De Montfort and taken prisoner. 3. the earliest Parliament - in 1265, 2 knights from each county, 2 burgesses (citizens) from each town. The Great Council developed later into the lords and the Commons known as parliament. 3. Met only by royal invitation. Its role was to offer advice. At this point parliament only met by royal invitation. Its role was to offer advice, not to make decisions. 4. under Edward I, Wales was conquered. The statute of Wales in 1284； Prince of Wales, a title held by the heir to the throne under Edward I, Henry III s son, Wales was conquered (1277-1284) and came under the English Crown. The statute of Wales in 1284 placed the country under English law end Edward I presented his new-born son to the Welsh people as Prince of Wales, a title held by the heir to the throne ever since. iv. the hundred years war with France and its consequences 1. the intermittent war, 1337-1453； the name is given to the intermittent war between France and England that lasted form 1337 to 1453. 2. the causes: partly territorial and partly economic 3. Edward III declared war. When Edward III (1327-1377) claimed the French Crown by right of his mother Isabella, daughter of Philip IV. In 1337 Edward declared a war that was to last for a hundred years. There were three outstanding stages of the war. 4. England was successful at first, but was defeated at last. Joan of Arc(圣女贞德 ) After his death in 1422, the French, encouraged by Joan of Arc, their national heroine, drove the English out of France. 5. By 1453, only Calais By 1453 Calais was the only part of France that was still in the hands of the English. 6. a blessing for both countries: good for the development of separate English and French national identity. The expulsion of the English from France is regarded as a blessing for both countries； had they remained, the superior size and wealth of France would certainly have hindered the development of a separate English national identity, while French national identity was hindered so long as a foreign power occupied so much French territory. V. consequences of the Black Death 1. deadly bubonic plague(淋巴腺鼠疫 ), an epidemic disease spread by rat fleas. Black Death was the modern name given to the deadly bubonic plague, an epidemic disease spread by rat fleas. It spread through Europe in the 14th century, particularly in 1347-1350. 2. It killed between one half and one third of the population, reduced Englands population from 4 million to 2 million by the end of 14th century. 3. Consequences: much land was left untended, and there was a terrible shortage of labor. The government tried to keep down wages. The economic of the Black Death were far-reaching. As a result of the plague, much land was left untended and there was a terrible shortage of labor. It intervened for the first time to establish rules to keep down wages. IV. 总结 : William the Conqueror and feudalism； the limitation of the kings power: Great Charter and Parliament； the Hundred Years war； Black Death Chapter 4 Transition to the Modern Age (1455-1688) I. 本章知识点 1. 重点 : the nature and consequences of the wars of the roses； Henry VIII and the English reformation； Elizabeth I and Parliament； Elizabeth s religious reform and her foreign police； Distinctive features of the English renaissance； The Civil Wars and their consequences； The commonwealth under Oliver Cromwell； The restoration and the Glorious Revolution； 2. 难点 考点 : the English reformation； Elizabeth I ； English renaissance； The restoration； The Glorious revolution； III. 课本内容 一 the nature and consequences of the wars of the roses 1.the nature : a revival of baronial activity； the wars of the roses was fought between tow branches of the Plantagenet family, the House of Lancaster (symbolized by the red rose) and the House of York (the white rose ) between 1455 and 1485. This time the instability was caused by the two branches of the Plantagenet family, the House of Lancaster and the House of York between 1455 and 1485. 2. the name was coined by 19th century novelist Sir Walter Scott. The name wars of the roses was ,in fact ,coined by the great 19th century novelist sir Walter Scott, but it has become the accepted way of referring to these battles between the great house of Lancaster ,symbolized by the red rose ,and that of York, symbolized by the white. 3. the interests of the majority of the common people were not deeply engaged. 4. the last battle was fought between Richard III and Henry Tudor in 1485. Henry Tudor, after his victory ,married Elizabeth of York ,thus uniting the houses of Lancaster and York and putting the country under the rule of the Tudors. On August 22, 1485 at Bosworth Field in Leicestershire the last battle of the wars of the roses was fought between Richard III and another claimant to the throne, Henry Tudor, part-welsh grandson of Owen Tudor and descendant of John of Gaunt, Duke of Lancaster. Soon after his victory, Henry Tudor married Elizabeth of York ,thus uniting the houses of Lancaster and York and putting the country under the rule of the Tudors. 5. Consequences: feudalism received its death blow； the nobility was much weakened and discredited； the kings power now became supreme. Although the wars of the roses were waged intermittently for thirty years, ordinary people were little affected and went about their business as usual. From these wars feudalism received its death blow. The great medieval nobility was much weakened and discredited. The kings power now became supreme. 6. parliament in England was already a fairly important body which had to be consulted. Parliament in England was already a fairly important body which had to be consulted, if only to get grants of pounds agreed upon. 二 Henry VIII and the English reformation 1. 6wives, divorced 2and executed 2 Henry VIII, son of Henry VII, is usually remembered as the English king who had six wives one after anther. He divorced twice and executed two of his wives for supposed adultery. Yet in spite of this rather frivolous image he is regarded as a great king. Henry VIII was above all responsible for the religious reform of the church. 2.three causes for the religious reform: a desire for change (Martin Luther)； privilege and wealth of the clergy were resented； Henry needed money. 3. purpose: to get rid of the English churchs connection with the Pope, and to make an independent church of England. 4. two laws: the act of succession of 1534 and the act of supremacy of 1535 The power of the monarch and certainly strengthened Henrys position； Parliament had never done such a long and important piece of word before. Expect some movement away from Catholicism towards protestant ideology. 5. real religious change came in his son Edwards time. People call this “the reformation” -the switch to protestant theology. 6. Mary Tudor, “bloody Mary”: to reconvert England to Roman Catholicism. And many people were persecuted for their protestant religious views. She also lost the French port of Calais. 7. Elizabeth I, a protestant queen The reign of Elizabeth I, a protestant Queen , was greeted with relief and a high tide of nationalism. England has been protestant ever since. 三 Elizabeth I and Parliament 1. Reigned for 45 years； remained single. Elizabeths reign was a time of confident English nationalism and of great achievements in literature and other arts, in exploration and in battle. 2. able to work with the parliament which was mainly protestant Generally speaking, Elizabeth was able to work with parliament. This was because the puritans in the House of Commons were still loyal to the queen although they demanded further religious reform. 3. avoided troubling parliament too often for pounds by making strict economies at court.(在皇宫中厉行节约 ) besides , Elizabeth avoided troubling parliament too often for pounds by making strict economies at court. 4. but often turbulent.(动荡不安 ) Elizabeth treated 5 questions as personal and private. These were her religion ,her marriage, her foreign policy, the succession to the throne, and her finance. 四 Elizabeths religious reform and her foreign policy 1. a compromise of views: broke Marys ties with Rome and restored her fathers independent church of England , keeping to catholic doctrines and practices but to be free of the Papal control； “outward conformity to the established religion ,but opinion should be left free”. Her rdligious settlement was unacceptable to both the extreme Protestants known as puritans and to ardent Catholics. 2. played off France and Spain against each other, and prevented England from getting involved in European conflict. For nearly 30 years Elizabeth successfully played off against each other the two great catholic powers, France and Spain, and prevented England from getting involved in and major European conflict. 3. the destruction of Spanish Armanda, in 1588 showed Englands superiority as a naval power, and enabled England to become a great trading and colonizing country. 五 distinctive features of the English renaissance 1. renaissance -the revival of classical literature and artistic styles in European history； the transitional period between the middle ages and modern times , 1350-1650； it saw the challenge of the supremacy of the roman catholic church by the reformation, the rise of Humanism, the growth of large nation-states, the far-ranging voyages of exploration, and a new emphasis on the importance of the individual. 2. in England, beginning with the accession of the house of Tudor in 1485. In England, the renaissance was usually thought of as beginning with the accession of the house of Tudor to the throne in 1485. 3. 5 characteristics: English culture was revitalized mainly by contemporary Europeans； insular country； native literature (14th century poet Chaucer) ；English renaissance literature is primarily artistic； coincided with the reformation. 4. the English renaissance was largely literary Elizabethan drama 5. William Shakespeare 莎士比亚 is the greatest writer in the English language. 注 : (Gunpowder Plot of 1605Guy Fawkes Day； 1620, Pilgrim Fathers, Mayflower, New Plymouth in America Charles I, “the Divine Right of Kings”(君权神授 ) Puritanism 清教 ； simple dress, high moral standards and very egalitarian 平等 attitude. 1628, petition of Right (), the 2nd Magna Carta. 六 the civil wars and their consequences 1. first civil war (1642-1646): Charles gained the support of the north and west of the country and Wales, and the universities of Oxford and Cambridge； the parliament from southeast England and London. Many nobles and gentry gathered around the king , while the parliamentary army was made up of yeoman farmers, middle-class townspeople, and artisans. The kings men were called Cavaliers (骑士派 ), and the supporters of parliament were called Roundheads (圆颅派 ) because of their short haircuts. 2. Oliver Cromwell, “Ironsides “ cavalry (铁骑军 ), new Model Army. Prince Rupert, the kings young nephew, lost to Oliver Cromwells “ironsides” cavalry regiment at Marston Moor. Oliver Cromwell became lieutenant general of the new model army. 3. second civil war, 1648 Charles was tried by a high court of justice, found guilty of having levied war against his kingdom and the parliament, condemned to death, and executed on a scaffold outside the windows of the Banqueting House at Whitehall on January 30, 1649. 4. Charles was executed (beheaded) on a scaffold outside the Whitehall (白厅 ,昔日皇宫 )on Jan 30, 1649. 5. also called the puritan revolution the English civil war is also called the puritan revolution ,because the kings opponents were mainly puritan, and his supporters chiefly Episcopalian and catholic. 6. as a conflict between the parliament and the king , but also as a conflict between the economic interests of the urban middle classes and the traditional economic interests of the crown. 7. it not only overthrew feudal system in England , but also shook the foundation of the feudal rule in Europe. 8. as the beginning of modern world history. 七 the commonwealth under Oliver Cromwell 1. Oliver Cromwell and the rump (残余国会 ) declared England a commonwealth. Meanwhile, Oliver Cromwell and the rump members of the long parliament who had voted for Charless execution declared England a commonwealth. 2. crushed without mercy a rebellion in Ireland； suppression of the levelers (平均派 ) One of Cromwells first acts was to crush without mercy a rebellion in Ireland, killing all the inhabitants of the towns of Drogheda and Wexford. Another was the suppression of the levelers. 3.1653 lord protector of the commonwealth of England. He became Lord protector of the commonwealth of England. 4. direct military rule tyrant； tough control of the nations morals 八 the restoration and the Glorious revolution 1. the restoration : the parliament asked the late kings son to return from his long exile in France as king Charles II(1660-1685). 2. Clarendon code: severe laws against the puritans, now known as nonconformists.(不信奉英国国教者 ) 3. against Catholics: the test act 1673 excluded all Catholics from public office of any kind； the disabling act forbade any Catholics to sit in either house of parliament . 4. John Bunyan-Pilgrims Progress； john Milton-paradise lost 5. the glorious revolution : the English politicians rejected James II, a catholic, and appealed to a protestant king , William of Orange , Jamess Dutch nephew and the husband of Mary, Jamess daughter. The takeover was relatively smooth, with no bloodshed. 6. Bill of rights 1689, a compromise: excluding any roman catholic from the succession； confirmed the principle of parliamentary supremacy； guarantee free speech within both houses. 7. the age of constitutional Monarchy- a monarchy with powers limited by parliament 8. 1707 , under queen Anne, the act of Union( ) united England and Scotland ； the name of great Britain came into being. Chapter 5 the rise and fall of the British Empire (1688-1990) 本章前言 1 重点 :Whigs and Tories ； agricultural changes in the 18th century； the English industrial revolution and its impact on the development of Britain ； the chartist movement and its consequences； the building of the British empire； Britain and the first world war； Britain and the second world war； Postwar Britain； Thatcherism 2. 难点 考点 :1) Whigs and Tories 2) the enclosure act 3) industrial revolution 4) chartist movement 5)colonial expansion 6) effect of the two wars on Britain 7) Thatcherism 课本内容 一 Whigs and Tories 1. These two party names originated with the Glorious revolution 2. Whigs -Whigs was a derogatory name for cattle drivers , opposed absolute monarchy and supported the right to religious freedom for nonconformists； earl of Shaftsbury- first leader； care for the interests of merchants and bankers； later, with dissident Tories, became the liberal party. 3. Tories Irish word meaning thugs, supported hereditary monarchy , reluctant to remove kings； traditionalists who want to preserve the powers of the monarchy and the church of England； the Tories were the forerunners of the conservative party, which still bears the nickname today. 4. Radicals: there was another brand of opinion, but with much smaller support in the parliament . They were greatly influenced by Jeremy Bentham, Utilitarianism 功利主义 the greatest happiness for the greatest number. 5. They advocated laissez faire,自由主义 a radical idea of free trade； because they believed that the import and export duties interfered with the natural flow of trade. 二 Agricultural changes in the late 18th century 1. Agricultural changes in the late 18th and early 19th centuries were indeed so great that they merit the term revolution. Traditional farming: the open field village, a system that dated back to the 5th century. There were of course drawbacks: 1) it wasted land because of fallow fields and land for paths； 2) it was wasteful of labor and time； 3) livestock farming was difficult and diseases spread quickly on commons. 4) The open field system was a barrier to experiments. 2. in the mid-18 century the population in England increased rapidly, and most of this increase was in the towns, depending on the countryside for food. 3. the enclosure acts():during the late 18th and early 19th centuries the open field system ended when the enclosure acts enabled wealthier landowners to seize any land to which tenants could prove no legal title and to divide into enclosed fields. 4. a system of crop rotation(轮播耕作 ) 5. artificial fertilizer ,and new agricultural machinery: such as the seed drill invented by Jethro Tull. 6. George III and even George III were so enthusiastic about changes at Windsor that he got the nickname “farmer George.” 7. good results: farms became bigger and bigger units as the great bought up the small； more vegetables, more milk and more dairy produce were consumed ,and diet became more varied； 8. bad results : a disaster for the tenants, enclosure leading to mass immigration, est. to the New World； a new class hostility was introduced into rural relationships. 三 the industrial revolution (17801830) The English industrial revolution and its impact on the development of Britain 1. the industrial revolution refers to the mechanization of industry and the consequent changes in social and economic organization in Britain in the late 18th and early 19th centuries. 2. reasons: the limited monarchy which resulted from the glorious revolution of 1688 ensured that the powerful economic interests in the community could exert their influence over government policy； probably laissez faire and protestant work ethic helped. 3. changes occurred earliest and quickest in textiles , especially cotton and silk and in other trades like hardware, pottery and chemicals. The real revolution in textiles was in 1770. when power-driven machinery was introduced. Cotton had been slow to develop because cotton was imported from west Indies and America. 4. John Kays flying shuttle (飞梭 ) speeded dup hand weaving, creating demand for faster yarn spinning. Then spinning was revolutionized by James Hardgraves spinning jenny. (詹尼纺纱机 ) Edmund Cartwrights power loom(动力织机 ) 1. steam engine :the first steam engine was devised by Thomas Newcomer； the Scottish inventor James Watt modified and improved the design of steam engine. 2. the most important element in speeding industrialization: breakthrough by Abraham Darby, smelting iron with coke. Perhaps the most important element in speeding industrialization was the breakthrough which came when Abraham Darby succeeded in smelting iron with coke instead of charcoal in 1709. 3. improved transportation (road, canal construction) ran parallel with production. 4. the “workshop of the world” by 1830 As a result of the industrial revolution, Britain was by 1830 the “workshop of the world”； no other country was yet ready to compete with her in industrial production. 5. the industrial revolution created the industrial working class, the proletariat, and it later led to trade unionism. 6. “Luddites”-supposedly led by Ned Ludd, attempted to destroy the hated machines, but were severely punished by the government. 7. The two events which most alarmed the British ruling classes in the closing decades of the 18th century: the American war of independence, “no tax without representation” ； and