《拓展句的写法》PPT课件.ppt

英语说明文的段落及拓展,按文体分类，英语文章主要有四大类：说明文（Exposition）、议论文（Argument）、描写文（Description）、记叙文（Narrative）。,说明文是向读者说明和解释人和事物的文章。教科书、杂志文章、新闻社论等都属于说明文。通过说明文，可以提供知识、解释事实、介绍发展过程。说明的对象比较广泛，可以是观点、概念、事实，也可以是原因、步骤、方法、过程、体系等。在实际写作中，还可以对解释或说明的对象进行一定的分析。,说明性段落的基本原则：首先，明确自己写作的目的，即表达什么样的中心思想。其次，要使段落中的所有语句都与该段落的主题思想密切相关。（要保证主题思想合乎逻辑的发展，条理清楚，集中表达作者的思路和意图）。,说明性段落的基本写法：首先，在段首用主题句（topicsentence）点明全段的主题思想。然后，通过拓展句（supportingsentences）以各种形式的细节对主题句所表达的思想观点进行阐述和论证。最后，用强有力的结尾句（conclusionsentence）结束段落，帮助读者回顾或更清楚地理解段落的要点。,段落的拓展方法,1、类比法（Analogy）2、辩论法（Argument）3、因果法（CauseandEffect）4、分类法（Classification）5、比较与对比法（CompareandContrast）6、定义分析法（Definition-Analysis）7、概述法（Summary）,类比法（Analogy）,类比法（Analogy):以比较熟悉的事物比喻说明一个比较抽象复杂的概念或事物，有助于读者的理解。,Ananalogyisdefinedasarelationorresemblanceexistingbetweentwothingsthatarebasicallydifferent.Thatis,onethingislikeanotherthinginthattheyhavesimilarcharacteristics,features,oreffects.Inshort,twothingsarediscussedintermsofeachothereithertoshowhowmuchtheyarealikeortoexplainhowthe“complicated”isreallythe“simple”withadvancements.,Application(DoesandDonts)Mostanalogiesinvolveusingthecommon,thesimple,ortheknowntoexplaintheuncommon,thecomplex,ortheunknown.Or,toputitanotherway,analogyisusedwhenthecomplexisexplainedbybreakingitdownintosimplepartswithwhichthereaderisfamiliar.Makesurethat“theknown”isknowntoyourreader.Mostofoureverydayinferencesarebyanalogy-frompastexperiencestofuturepredictions.Mostanaloguesarebrief.Mostanalogiesarefoundinotherformsofwriting:Deductive,Inductive,Compare/Contrast.Literaryanalogiesarecalledsimilesormetaphorsandareusedindescribing,explaining,arguing,andthelike.,5.Dontusefiguresofspeechandletitgoatthat.Thus,tosaythatAislikeBisnotenough.YoumustexplainwhyAislikeB,whattheyhaveincommon,andhowtheydiffer.6.Dontusefalseanalogy.Thatis,makesurethethingsintheanalogyaresimilar,thatthesimpleisalogicalsimplificationofthecomplexoralogicalsimplificationofpartofthecomplex.Ifthingsarealikeinoneway,theymaynotbealikeinothers.7.Donttrytoexplaintheverydifficultunlessyouarefamiliarwithit.8.Rememberthatnoanalogyisexact.Thecomplexisonlypartiallyexplainedbythesimple.,TheQueenBeeAfterIpledgedafraternity,Ibecameawareofatypeofgirloncampuswhoishighlyanalogoustothequeenbeeinahive.Ithinkthesimilaritiesareremarkable.,Thequeenbeeinahiverepresentstrueroyalty.Herinstinctstellhertherecanbeonlyoneleaderineachhive.Forthisreason,sheisquicktodestroyordriveawayanyopposition.Alltheotherbeeslivetoserveherandtokeepherwellfedandprotected.Themalebeeisofnovalueexceptasamateforthequeen.Heservesnootherpurpose,suchasproducinghoneyorfightingenemiesofthehive,asdotheworkersandtheguardbees.Wereitnotforthequeen,thesedroneswouldbekilledorbanished.Theworkerssupplythequeenwithhoney.Theguardsprotectherwithabarbedweaponcalledastinger.Inshort,itappearsasthoughthousandsofbeesexistsolelytoservethequeenbee.,Similarly,manysororitieshaveaqueenbee,agirlwhorepresentstrueroyalty.Anysightthreatofoppositionthatmightcomefromthe“workers”orthe“guards”meetswithsuddenandsureretaliation.Accordingly,theyseldomshowanysignsofopposingher.Evenabriefacquaintancewithasororityleadsonetobelievethatalltheothergirlsinthesororityexiststoservetheir“queenbee.”shegetsfirstchoiceofthemalesoncampuswhoareleaders,wealthyathletes,orwhohavepositionsofpower.Thesemalesbecameherescorts,herdates.Anyothermalenotfittingtheabovegroupsisautomaticallya“drone,”andheisleftfortheinferiorbeestofightover.Theworkersandtheguardbeesinthesororityservethesamefunctionsastheircounterpartsinthehive.Theymaintaintheirqueensroom,herclothing,herreputation,and,frequently,herscholasticstanding.Theyareatherbeckandcalltoserveasneeded.Onthewhole,thegirlsseemtoregardtheirqueenwiththesamerespectandawethatthebeesregardtheirqueen.Ratherthanastinger,however,thegirlshaveanequallypointedanddeadlyweapon-theirtongues.Atonguecanparalyzeordestroyanenemyassurelyasabeesstinger.,Andso,thenexttimeyouarewalkingpastasororityhouseandhearabuzzingwithin,donotthinkthatyourearsareplayingtricks.You,myfriend,havejustcomeacrossareal,honest-to-goodness,grow-uphiveofhumanbees.,辩论法（Argument）,论证某一正确的观点、看法和主张或者是批驳某一错误的观点、看法和主张的文章。辩论的目的是阐述思想，说服读者，使其接受自己的观点和主张。,Anargumentativethemeisonethatpresentsanddevelopsreasonsthatleadtoageneralization,oraconclusion,whichinturnleadstoanapplication.Inordertoeffectivelyargue,weshoulddooneoftwothings:AvoidcontroversialtopicsStateyouaremerelypresentingthetwosidesofanargumentinordertoallowthereadertodecideforhimself.,Suggestions:Inthefirstparagraph,presentthecause,reasons,andhistoryofthecontroversy.Tellthereaderwhereyoustand.Ifyouwishtoremainneutral,tellthereaderthatyouarepresentingbothsidesandthatsheistomakeupherownmind.InthesecondparagraphyoucanuseoneoftwoformsDiscussallofoneside.Itmaytakemorethanoneparagraph.Discusspoint1ofeachside.Ifyouhavechosensides,tellthereaderwhyyoursideisthebetterone.Intheconclusionparagraph,ifyouhavechosensides,reaffirmthatyoursideisrightbecauseoftheprecedingevidence。Ifyouremainneutral，tellthereadertodecide。,Application(DoesandDonts),Argumentativethemesinwhichyoutakesidesareextremelydangerous.Controversialsubjectsrequiremuchthoughtandresearch.Ifyouchooseaharmlesstopic,yourunthedangerofwritingaseriesofplatitudes.Usefamiliarsubjects-campuspolitics,schoolactivities,andthelike.Ifyouintendtoremainneutral,quicklytellthereaderthatyouaregoingtopresentbothsidesandlethimmakeuphismind.,4.Nomatterwhatapproachyoutake,youmustuseup-to-datefacts,figures,charts,quotations,andthelike,forbothsides.Donotusepartialproofifitdoesnotgiveanaccurateaccountofyoursource.Ifyouarequoting,becautiousinyouruseofellipses,especiallyiftheomittedmaterialchangesthemeaningofyouroriginalsource.5.Defineyourterms.Bespecificinwhatyoumeanbyyourterms.6.Avoidgeneralizationbyothersorbyyourself.Alsoavoidfaultylogic,faultyanalogies,inadequatepresentationofevidence.,7.Avoidtryingtodisproveallthattheoppositionclaims.Givecreditwhereitisdue.Anargumentthatiswillingtocompromiseonsomeissuesislikelytobemorefairandreasonablethanonethatstubbornlysaysthattheoppositioniscompletelywrong.,SpeakEnglish!Practicallyeveryweekthereisatleastonearticleinthelocalnewspaperdebatingwhetherornotbilingualeducationisadvantageoustostudents.This,unfortunately,isnotarecentconcern.Duringthesixtiesandseventiesitwasfashionableineducationalcirclestostressanindividualsrighttoretainthelanguageandspeechpatternoftheirnativeculture.However,manybelievebilingualeducationisadisservicetotheyoungsters,foritweakenstheirabilitytoexpressthemselvesforcefullyandaccuratelyinEnglish,thedailylanguageofthiscountry.EvenwriterssuchasRichardRodriguezandWilliamRaspberry,whohaveastronginterestinretainingtheculturalvaluesoftheirrespectiveminorities,recognizetheimportanceofchildrenlearningstandardEnglish.AsRaspberrypointedoutinoneofhisarticles,“StandardEnglishmarksapersonaseducated.”,Englishis,afterall,thelanguageofthecontinentalUnitedStates,andinordertosucceedonemusthaveagoodcommandofstandardEnglish.Itisimperativethatonedevelopanabilitytoreadwithunderstandingandinsight,tobeabletorecognizethenuancesinphrasingandanauthorsuseofdictionandstyle.Equallyimportantisthereaderineffectiveprose.Butperhapsmostimportantistobeabletospeakthelanguage,tophraseonesthoughtssothatthereislittleroomformisinterpretationandmisunderstanding.Alloftheseskillsaredifficulttoattain,butespeciallysoforthechildwhoisnotconstantlyexposedtotheEnglishlanguage.,Althoughbilingualismhasitsmerits,theyareoutweightedbyitsnegativeimpact.Studentswhoarebilingualtendtorelyontheirnativetongue,thelanguagespokenathome.TheytendtothinkinthatlanguageandthentranslatetheirthoughtsintoEnglish,oftencreatingawkwardandunidiomaticconstructions.Theemphasisonthenativetonguealsoisahindrancetoaccuratepronunciation.ManybilingualcollegestudentshavebemoanedthattheywerenotexposedtoEnglishinthehomeandthattheyreceivedbilingualeducation.Theyhavefoundthemselvesatadistinctdisadvantagethroughouttheirschoolingandintheworkforce.TheyhavefoundthattheirdifficultieswithEnglishhavelimitedtheirchoices.,AssuchasweliketotalkaboutAmericabeingamultiethnic,multicultural,multilingualsociety,thereisnoescapingthereality:thelanguageofthecountryisEnglish,andwithoutmasteryofstandardEnglish,peoplesopportunitiesandchoicesarelimited.Theirchancesofderivingthefullbenefitsfromtheireducationarerestricted;theirchancesofgettingintoagoodcollegearegreatlyreduced;theirchancesofavailingthemselvesofallthoseopportunitiesforwhichacommandofEnglishisaprerequisitearenonexistent.Inshort,educatorsandparentswhodonotinsistonchildrenspeakingEnglisharedoingthemagreatdisservice;theyarenotpreparingthemforthefuture.SoletusimmersestudentsinEnglishfromdayone.LetbothteachersandparentsstresstheimportanceofspeakingEnglish.,因果法（CauseandEffect）,因果法的特点是按事物的因果关系来论证和说明文章的中心思想。次序上可先因后果，即：先陈述原因后陈述结果；也可以先果后因，即先陈述结果后陈述原因。可以是一因一果，也可以是一因多果，还可以是因果链锁反应，即前面的果成为后面的因。,Application(DoesandDonts),Makesurethatyouhavesufficientevidence.Ifyoucannotmakedefinitivestatements,thenqualifyyourremarkswithwordslikeusually,possibly,itseems,apparently,probably,andthelike.Donotignoresecondandthirdcauses.Forinstance,asuccessfulfishermanwhogetsresults(“effects”)issuccessfulformanycauses,notjustbecausehesusingabrandnamereel.,3.Besurethatyourfacts,figures,authorities,etc.,arevalid.4.Acause-and-effectthemeisdifficulttowrite.Youwillnotethatmostdiscussionsofthetypearewrittenbyspecialists.Unlessyouarewritingaboutapersonalexperience,youwillhavetorelyuponresearchtobackyourstatements.Youwillfrequentlyfindtopicsandauthoritiesmentionedinsuchcoursesashistory,sociology,psychology,education,andsoforth.,5.Dontassumethatacausethatprecedesaneffectisatruecauseorthattwothingsoccurringsimultaneouslyarerelated.Theessenceofcauseandeffectisrepeatedobservation-thescientificmethod.6.Dontrelyongeneralizations.Asentencelike“Everybodyknowsthataneducationisnecessary,”maysoundgood,butitisnotproof.Ifyoumustgeneralize,usethewordsfoundinthe“Qualifiers”partofDefinitions.7.Dontignoretheexceptions.Thatis,ifthecausesleadtoacertaineffectnineoutoftentimes,youmustnotignorethetenthtime.,TheBadNewDaysMyfathergrewupinthesouthernpartofthestate,andIgrewupinthesouthernpartofthestate.Frommyfather,Ihaveinheritedalovefortheoutdoors,particularlyaloveforfishing.Itistruethatallfishermenhaveabitofexaggerationintheircharacter.Butwhenmyfathertalksaboutwhatfishingusedtobelikeinthe“goodolddays,”Iaminclinedtobelievehim.Ihavetotakehiswordsontrustbecausewhatwehavetodaycertainlybearsnoresemblancetowhathedescribes.Thesearetrulythe“badnewdays.”,TheBigRiver,fathertellsme,onceswarmedwithsmall-mouthbass.Thewaterranclear,thereweredeeppoolsofshadedwater,andanyfishermancouldgohomewithalimit.Today,inadequatelawsthatallowsmallcommunitiestodumptheirrawsewageintotheriverhaveturnedtheBigRiverintoanopensewer.Thefewfishermenwhovisititsbanksareseekingonlycarporcatfish.,Thelocalreservoirwasoncea200-acrehotspot,orsofathersays.Today,gizzardshadandcatfishhavedrivenoutallthegamefish.Atonetime,nolivebaitcouldbeused,butsometimeinthepast,someidiotdumpedhisillegallivebaitintothereservoir,and,inevitably,thetrashfishtookover.,GreenLakeisstillabeautifullake.Itlookslikea“fish”lake.Itstillhasareputation,largelyundeserved,ofbeingalakeforbigbass.Thereareprobablysome8or9poundersinthelake.Butlookatitsshores.Dozensofcommercialandprivatecamps,black-toppedroads,rules,regulations,swimmingbeaches-itslikefishinginafountaininthecitysquare.Afishermanishardlyeveroutofsightofcampers,picnickers,speedboaters,andonlookers.,AndBigIndianLakecannowbedescribedasamuddybowl.It,too,wasonceafishermansparadise.Butlookatittoday.Black-toppedroadsswarmingwithspeeders,theshoresmarredbybeercansandpicniclitter.IimaginethatabeachinacitylooksprettymuchlikethisonaSundayafternoon.Also,sedimentationhassetin.thelakeisonevastshallowsaucerofbrownwater.Andwhenthehundredsofspeedboatsandwaterskiersfinishtheirweekenddesecrations,ittakesthreeorfourdaysforthewatertoclear.,Theeffectofallthisisquiteobvious.Fishinghasbecomesomethingtheold-timerstalkaboutandsomethingtheyoungergenerationapproachesinadesultorymanner.Whatevermayhavebeengainedbyothers,thefishermanhaslostout.Itisacommonthingfortruefishermeninoursectiontogetintheircarsanddrivehundredsofmilestofish.Imagine,tofindfishwehavetoleaveanareathatboaststhreeorfourlakes!Andunlessotherareaswakeup,theywilleventuallyfindthattheirlocalfishingwatershavealsobeendestroyed.,Suggestedtopics,ThecausesoffailureReasonsforchangingmajorsOurdropoutproblemTheeffectsofracismEffectsofbudgetcutsoneducationWhy_wasdefeated,分类法（Classification）,当所述事物关系复杂，就可用分类的方法是相关事物成为一体。进行分类是保持文章连贯性的好方法。分类时必须注意用统一标准，不能混用不同标准。,Application(DoesandDonts),Narrowyourtopic.Forinstance,ratherthanwriteabout“CollegeTeachers,”limityourpapertothreeorfourkindsofteachers.Ifyouaretowriteaboutonlytwoclasses,choosetheCompare/Contrastmethod.,3.Ifitisapersonalclassification,usealogicaldivisions.Useaseparateparagraphforeachdivisionofyourclassification.Usethelogicalapproach-chronological,increasingordecreasingimportance,causalrelationship,andsoon-thatbestfitsyourtopic.(Ifisatraditionalclassification,youarecarefulnottoplagiarize.Thatis,youarepermittedtousetextbookclassification,butnottheauthorswordsorsentencesunlessyouusequotation.),4.Dontoverlapclassifications.Thatis,makesurethatathingbelongingtooneclassdoesnotalsobelongtoanotherclass.(Forinstance,ifyouclassifyautomobilesasImported,Expensive,andEconomical,youwillfindthatsomeautomobilesbelongtomorethanoneclass.),HowWeavesAreClassifiedWovenfabricsaremadebytheinterlacingoftwoormoresetsofyarnatrightanglestoproduceafabric.Thelengthwiseyarniscalledthewarp,andthecrosswiseyarniscalledthefilling(woof).Thethreebasicweavesarecalledplain,twillandsatin.Manyinterestingeffectscanbecreatedbyvariationsinthesebasicweaves.,Theplainweaveisthesimplestandmostinexpensivetomanufacture.Thefillingandwarpyarnsinterlacealternately,formingaplainweavethatisdurableandusedoftenbecauseitissuitableformostfibers.Sheetingandwoolingbroadclotharetwoexamplesofplain-weavefabric.,Therearevariationsintheplainweavethatmakefabricmoreattractive.Aribbedorcordedeffectmaybeobtainedbyusingfillingyarnsthatareheavierthanthewarpyarns,orviceversa.Thedecorativeblanketweavecommonlyusedinoxfordshirtingispassedalternatelyoverandundertwoormorewarpyarns.,Thetwillweaveischaracterizedbydiagonalridgesformedbyyarnsthatareexposedonthesurface.Twillweavesaremorecloselywoven,heavier,andstudierthanplainweaves.Gabardine,denim,andcottontwillareexamplesoftwill-weavefabric.Variationsofthetwillweavemaybeusedtoformherringboneordiamondpatternsinthefabric.,Thesatinweaveisreadyabrokentwill,buttheinterlacingsofthewarpandfillingyarnsarespacedtoavoidtheformationofawaleortwill.Thesatinweaveproducessmooth,lustrous,rich-lookingfabricthatgivesreasonablygoodservice.Fabricsofthesatinweavearemoreappropriatefordressorformalwear,becausetheyarenotasdurableasfabricsofplainandtwillweaves.Variationsofthesatinweavemaybeusedtomakeasofter,lesslustrousfabric.Examplesoffabricsmadeinthesatinweaveareantiquesatin,bridalsatin,anddresssatin.,比较与对比法（CompareandContrast）,比较（compare）用于指出同一范畴的事物之间的相似之处，而对比（contrast）则用于指出它们的不同之处。（实际上，比较与对比常同时使用，只是侧重点有所不同。）,通过比较与对比两种事物或两个概念，可以达到以下目的：1）确定两种事物的相同与不同之处，便于澄清认识，或突出一事物比另一事物的优越性；2）通过熟悉的事物与陌生事物的比较，使人们更清楚地了解陌生事物。,Suggestions,Form1:Discussallofonething.Youcoulduseoneparagraphforallthegood,andoneforallthebad.Thendiscussallaspectsoftheseconditem.Followtheparagraphingofthefirstitem.Ifyouarediscussingmorethantwomajorpoints,seeDefinitionform.,Suggestions,Form2:Discusspoint1ofAandB.Pointoutbothsimilaritiesanddifferences.Thendiscusspoint2ofAandB.EachsucceedingparagraphwilldiscussanotherpointofAandB.Iftherearemanypoints,useForm1.,Inyourconclusionforeitherform,youmayormaynotdecideinfavorofone.IfyouintendtosaythatAisbetterB,alsoseeArgumentdevelopment.,Application(DoesandDonts),1.Inashortpaper,restrictthecomparisonandcontrast.Thatis,tellthereaderthatyouaregoingtocompareandcontrasttwothings,noteverything.Ifyouaregoingtocompareandcontrastthreeormorethings,usetheDefinition-Analysisform.,2.Thingscomparedandcontrastedmustbelogicallyrelated.Theymustbealikeanddifferent.Weighingtheevidenceandchoosingamongalternativesarebothinvolved.3.Donotattempttoobigatopic.Ifyoudo,youwillbeforcedintoaseriesofplatitudesorgeneralitiesthatwillgiveyouorganizationwithoutinterest.,CharacterFoilInHamlet,Shakespearemakesveryeffectiveuseofcharacterfoil-twocharactersreactingtosimilarsituations-toemphasizeHamletstragicflaw,hisprocrastination.BothHamletandLaertesareconfrontedwiththeidenticalproblem;afatherbothbelievetobemostfoullymurdered.Whereaslaertes,uponhearingofPoloniusdeath,comesrushingbacktoDenmarkbentonrevenge,Hamletkeepsdelayingandretionalizinghislackofaction.ThroughLaertesrashbehaviorwecanseemoreclearlyHamletsinaction.,FromtheverymomentthatHamletlearnsabouthisfathersmurder,heplanstodelaytheneedforimmediaterevenge.Heindicatesthathewill“putananticdispositionon”andregretsthathewasborntosetthingsright.Hequestionswhethertheghostwastrulythatofhisfatherorsomeevilspiritsenttotempthim.EvenafterClaudiusreactiontotheplaywithintheplayverifieshisguilt,Hamletstilldoesnotact.WhenheseesClaudiusatprayer,hedecidesnottokillhim,forthatmightsaveClaudiusfromgoingtoHell.EvenwhenthekinghasHamletsenttoEngland,Hamletmeeklygoesalong.OnlythroughachanceattackbypiratesdoeshemanagetoescapeandreturntoDenmark,buthestilldoesnotseekrevenge.AfterseeingFortinbrasmarchresolutelytoPoland,Hamletvowsthat“fromthistimeforth,/Mythoughtsbebloody,”butstillheprocrastinates.Whenhefinallydoesact,itisbecauseheisforcedintoit.IntheduelwithLaertes,hediscoversthathehasbeenpoisonedthroughtheconnivanceofLaertesandClaudius,thathismotherisdeadfromdrinkingthepoisonedwineintendedforhim,andthatLaertesisdyingafterhavingbeenwoundedwiththepoisonedrapier.Itisatthispoint,withhisowndeathimminentandthebodiesofLaertesandGertrudestrewnabouthim,thathefinallystabsClaudius.Onecanalmostassumewereitnotfortheseevents,Hamletwouldhavecontinuedtodelaytheinevitable.,Laertes,however,hasnoinclinationtodelayseekingvengeance.Whenhegetswordthatisfatherhasbeenkilled,herushesbacktoDenmarkattheheadofabandofrioterstoseekvengeanceagainstthekingwhomhesupposestobeguilty.UnlikeHamlet,he“daresdamnation,”forhewill“berevenged/Mostthoroug