外文翻译--中国乘用车燃料经济性标准的组成和影响 英文版.pdf

6110型双层客车车身造型及骨架设计【2张CAD图纸】

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6110型双层客车车身造型及骨架设计

49页 21000字数+说明书+任务书+开题报告+外文翻译+2张CAD图纸【详情如下】

6110型双层客车车身造型及骨架设计开题报告.doc

6110型双层客车车身造型及骨架设计论文.DOC

任务书.doc

前期工作材料.doc

右侧围骨架总成.dwg

后围骨架总图.dwg

外文翻译--中国乘用车燃料经济性标准的组成和影响  中文版.doc

外文翻译--中国乘用车燃料经济性标准的组成和影响  英文版.pdf

调研报告.doc

摘 要

   6110型双层客车车身造型相当重要, 它直接影响整车的视觉效果。文章简要介绍我国客车造型的发展和现状; 较详细说明客车整体、局部造型及内饰技术和在造型中应注意的一些问题, 并展望我国客车造型未来的新局面。

   6110型双层客车车身设计是设计过程中非常重要得一个环节。车身根据其承载形式可分为承载式,非承载式和半承载式。按结构划分,整个骨架分为前围、后围、左侧侧围和顶盖五大部分。

   本次毕业设计主要采用auto CAD软件设计发动机后置的城市中型客车车身骨架的设计过程。文章主要阐述了车身骨架设计原则及依据,介绍了各种车身骨架结构形式,给出了车身骨架设计过程结构与尺寸,并对车身骨架进行了车身骨架的受载分析和强度分析,论了车身骨架的制造工艺.为了满足车身强度要求,车身骨架采用CO2气体保护焊焊接。

   关键词:6110型双层客车   造型   设计    骨架    承载式     受载      焊接

ABSTRACT

    The importance of busmodeling directly influences the bus vision . Th is article briefly introduces Ch inese busmodeling development and p resent situation,more detailedly describes the w hole and partial area modeling, trim tech2nology and some questions needing attention. It also look s forw ard to the future new situation of Ch inese busmodel2ing.

   The 6110body design is an automobile design process Central Africa constant weight fine link.The automobile body acts according to its load bearing form to be possible to divide into the load bearing type, non-load bearing type and half load bearing type. the side encircles with the roof panel five major parts.

   Mainly I use auto for this graduation project the CAD software design engine postpositioned city medium passenger train body frame the design process.The article mainly elaborated the body frame principle of design and the basis.Introduced each kind of body frame structural style, has given the body frame design process structure and the size, and carried on the body frame to the body frame to carry the analysis and the intensity analysis, elaborated the body frame manufacture craft.In order to satisfy the skeleton the intensity request, the entire body frame uses the CO2 shielded welding welding.

Key word: 6110Automobile body     Modeling   Carcase  Design     Skeleton      Load bearing    Welding                   

目录

第一章  绪论5

1.1课题分析及设计定位5

1.1.1 国内外客车的发展现状和对我国长途客车要求的分析5

1.1.2 设计基本思路的定位8

1.2我国客车工业的发展8

1.2.1 我国的客车发展现状8

1.2.2 客车制造工艺的发展 10

1.3国外客车的发展概况及车身造型 1.3.1 车身造型                   12

1.3.2 综合性能  

1.3.3 新技术13

1.3.4 新材料13

1.3.5 新工艺14

第二章  AUTO CAD 在6110型双层客车设计上的应用14

2.1前言15

2.2 AUTO CAD绘图软件介绍15

2.2.1 AUTO CAD绘图软件包的特性15

2.2.2 AUTO CAD系统的设备组成15

2.2.3 计算机15

2.2.4 外部设备15

2.3 用AUTO CAD 设计提高绘图速度的方法16

2.3.1 建立常用符号库16

2.3.2 建立标准件和标准型材库16

2.3.3 开发编辑命令17

2.3.5 建立总成图形库17

2.3.6 相关总成直接调用17

2.4 6110型双层客车应用AUTO CAD的设计优点18

第三章  6110型双层客车车身骨架设计原则和依据19

3.1 车身骨架的作用19

3.2本课题6110型双层客车骨架的设计原则19

3.3 本课题骨架的设计依据21

第四章  各种车身骨架结构形式分析22

4.1 6110型双层客车客车车身结构型式分析22

4.1.1按用途分类22

4.1.2按承载形式分类22

第五章  6110型双层客车车身骨架主要尺寸及结构形式确定26

5.1.车身骨架材料及型式26

5.2结构形式设计26

5.2.1左右侧围骨架设计与分析26

5.2.2 前、后围骨架设计与分析28

5.2.3 顶盖骨架设计与分析29

第六章  6110型双层客车车身骨架强度计算31

6.1车身结构受载分析31

6.2车身骨架强度计算32

6.2.1车身扭矩计算32

6.2.1计算公式36

第七章  6110型双层客车车身骨架制造工艺过程40

7.1 车身骨架的制造40

7.1.1矩形管的剪切切断40

7.2 6110型双层客车车身骨架五大片的合理划分41

7.3 6110型双层客车骨架的焊接工艺41

7.3.1 CO2气体保护焊41

7.3.2  6110型双层客车车身骨架五大片的组焊43

7.3.3 整车骨架联装组焊43

第八章  设计评价分析45

8.1存在的不足45

8.2改进方法45

结 束 语46

致  谢47

1.1课题分析及设计定位

1.1.1 国内外客车的发展现状和对我国长途客车要求的分析

    当今客车的发展日新月异。例如,每年的德国法兰克福世界客车展览会上均汇集了世界客车领先企业的顶尖产品(德国的奔驰公司、尼奥普兰公司、曼公司,瑞典的沃尔沃公司、斯堪尼亚公司等);他们今天展示的全新造型的新产品极有可能就是明天客车外形的发展趋势。21 世纪对各种大、中型客车发展的希望是,在安全、方便、快捷的基础上更舒适和环保,并且充分体现以人为本的要求;具体表现在,除了“三低”(低污染、低消耗、城市客车低地板)和“三高”(高比功率——良好的动力加速性、高安全可靠性、高舒适性)以及外观优美、座位合适、价格适中外,在综合性能方面还应该有新的发展趋势;其中包括,新技术(控制整车的各个方面均由计算机技术实现,代用燃料发动机,为改善制动性能和操纵性能而形成的标准设备,装有永磁式缓速器的传动系统)、适应市场要求的新材料,新工艺(提高车身涂装工艺标准,逐步实现产品生产的模具化)。

   欧洲是世界商用车的中心,拥有诞生世界第一客车的荣耀;在客车诞生 100 多年的今天,依然引领客车工业的方向——从发动机到变速箱、从底盘到车身;其 ECE R66 安全标准正成为世界标准。欧洲大型客车的主要特点是,全承载式车身,发动机功率大、扭矩高,且发动机转速呈下降趋势(当前用柴油机的最大转速平均为 1190r/min);其中,约 80%以上的产品采用空气悬架。这使客车的行驶速度加快,加速性、爬坡性、可靠性增强,经济性、环保性能、安全性更好;侧倾刚度、行驶平顺性、舒适性均有明显提高。目前,它的技术先进性主要表现在以下 4 个方面。

  ①节能技术——采用铝、镁合金、塑料,减小客车车身质量;研制风阻系数小的客车外形,尽可能地降低客车的空气阻力;设计使用天然气、甲醇、乙醇等新能源的客车。

  ②环保技术——改用无铅汽油和电子喷射式汽油机;安装废气处理装置;客车零部件的材料采用可回收利用的。

  ③安全技术——应用计算机仿真技术预示客车多方位碰撞的安全性、翻车时顶盖的强度和刚度、保证乘车人员生存空间的车身结构等;外,增加安全附加装置和采用高新技术产品,如安全带、安全气囊、防抱死制动统(ABS)、加速防滑系统(ASR)、自动差速锁装置(ASD)、缓速器。

  ④底盘技术——采用三段式底盘(半承载式)和无车架式底盘(承载式),使底盘布置形式呈“柔性化”,以适应各种匹配要求。

   自20 世纪 70 年代以来,中国客车经历了近 40 年的发展;引以自豪的是,国产客车基本占据全部国内客车市场,没有出现国外客车大批量拥入中国市场的现象。据统计,近年来的客车年产销量均在 8 万多辆,2005 年的全国从事旅游运营的大中型客车达 60 多万辆。国产客车的各大型龙头企业已具有相当先进的设备和工艺方式、完善的管理经验和与之配套的营销网络,在设计、研制、生产方面具备了一整套完善的技术力量保障措施,能够研制和生产不同档次、不同类型的客车、客车底盘、总成;例如,厦门金龙、郑州宇通、苏州金龙、扬州亚星等大型客车厂家。国产客车能够取得如此成就,其主要原因在于,国产客车在经历了改装、仿制、技术引进、中外合资的历程后,使中国客车工业的整体水平得到极大的提高和客车的整车质量得到稳步发展,缩小了与国外先进客车的差距。

   尽管如此,与国际上先进的客车工业相比,目前仍然存在差距。例如,豪华式客车的制造主要以组装方式进行。这就需要,尽快地自主开发出国产的全承载式车身;迅速增强零部件企业的自主研发能力和扩大它的生产力,使零部件企业的发展与整车企业的发展相匹配;进一步提高客车工业采用数字化设计和制造的整体水平,使新型客车和准高速车身的结构设计彻底摆脱传统的经验设计技术路线。只有这样,我国才能开发出具有国际先进水平的客车产品,才能真正地具有客车工业的核心竞争力。

   近年来,随着改革开放的深入发展,我国的国民经济有了长足的进步,人民的生活水平有了很大的提高,各城市的旅游业也都蓬勃发展,人们也就愿意让自己的节假日在旅游中度过。旅游景点大都以某个大城市为中心。例如,兵马俑在西安的周围。景点虽然属于该城市,但是离市中心又有很远的一段距离,所以往返于城市和景点之间的交通问题体现了出来,旅游讲的就是游玩时那种愉快的心情,而旅途中所乘坐环境是否舒适对游客的旅游心情有很大的影响。这对道路和旅游客车的乘坐舒适性提出了很高的要求,同时也刺激了旅游客车业的发展。随着生活水平的提高势必对长途汽车有更进一步的要求。

1.1.2 设计基本思路的定位

   纵观世界汽车工业沿革,可以看出,现代汽车是沿着“底盘”—“发动机”——“车身”逐步发展完善起来的。这个发展过程不是以人们的主观意志为转移的,而在很大程度上取决于当时的科学技术水平和物质生活水平。由于汽车与日常生活息息相关,为了适应各种不同的目的和用途乃至车辆的更新换代等,其关键在于车身。因此,车身工程是汽车工业中最年轻而又发展最迅速的一个分支。

   而且骨架随底架、造型、总布置的变化而有着较大的改变,这对我自己所学的知识也是一个较大的考验,所以我选择了其中的骨架设计。

近几年来,我国由于引进了国外先进技术,客车生产水平有了明显的提高,但在车身加工,装配,焊接,喷漆等工艺上与国外水平相差很大,再加之企业生产管理落后,导致我国客车生产的工艺水平发展很慢。根据这些, 客车制造工艺的发展

   改革开放以来,国家加大了客车企业的技术改造的支持力度,大中型客车企业通过国家立项,银行贷款,企业自筹,和发行股票等方式筹集资金,“七五“,“八五“和“九五”期间分别投入技改资金7.2亿元,15亿元,和8亿元,进行大规模的技术改造与技术引进,使国外先进的客车制造工艺,装备和技术在客车企业得到推广。

   焊装:1.研制成功先进适用的客车车身专用焊接装备。这些设备结构完善,配套齐全,使用方便,实现了车身焊接的胎具化,提高了产品的质量和劳动生产力,减轻了工人的劳动强度,提高了焊装过程的机械化,自动化水平。

   2.焊接方法普遍采用了生产效率高,操作性稳定的焊接质量优,使用成本低,适应性强和易于实现机械化,自动化的CO2气体保护焊。同时,为了确保车身外观质量,减少变形,单面双点和双面点焊电阻焊越来越多的在侧蒙皮焊接上得到应用。对一些特殊材料和铝板,铝型材,玻璃钢等制成的骨架,蒙皮等,则采用氩弧焊,粘接等其他工艺装配。

   3.对象车身前围和风窗框这样尺寸形状精确要求较高的总成件,除了使用前围焊接夹具外,为了保证装配质量,制作了风窗框检验样价,用来对风窗框进行检验和整形,确保了风窗玻璃的安装精度。

   4.焊接工序的安排,一般采取显示焊装生产流水线,完成六大片和白车身的焊装作业,在主生产线外进行总成的焊接,工艺小车,滑撬等移动工具得到广泛应用,焊接工件的运输实现了机械化。

5.采用可调式的车身,骨架焊装胎具,能够适应客车车身的变化和品种多,批量小的生产特点,实现了车身骨架的柔性化生产。   1.3国外客车的发展概况及车身造型1.3.1 车身造型    在车身造型方面具有如下新特点:

         ● 采用了电子倒车镜,使整车显得雍容华贵;

         ● 侧窗有加大的趋势,目前侧窗设计高度达到或接近1200 mm,约为整个侧围高度的2/5;

         ● 前后保险杠逐渐失去"保险"作用,其外形和整个前后围纵向特性线成为连续光滑曲线,使整车更显得"干净利索" ;

         ● 侧窗造型一改过去的直立柱,多采用曲线立柱,使整车富于变化;

         ● 外形各异的灯具对整车外形"画龙点睛"的作用;

         ● 重视细部造型,如轮罩,一改过去呆板的圆形形状,轮罩的设计更注重和整车的协调统一,同时也更富于变化;

        ● 一些新的外饰件的采用,对整车的造型也起到了不同程度的作用。如侧舱门采用铝合金合页或橡胶合页,豪华客车多采用粘接式前后风挡玻璃及侧窗,也有的采用推拉式侧窗;

         ● 其它外饰件的采用,如侧标志灯、侧反射器、高位制动灯、示廓灯的布置以及车门的型式和布置都对整车的外形有不同程度的作用和影响。

      ● 状的组合灯具,富于变化;车身高度增加,整车造型以小圆角过渡为主,各主要表面如前后围等局部造型更富于变化,粘接侧窗的采用使整车外表更加平整。

1.3.2 综合性能  对于各种大中型客车,要求在安全、方便、快捷的基础上,能更舒适、环保,充分体现以人为本的要求。用户对客车的要求有低污染、低消耗、低地板(对城市客车),价格适中以及高比功率(良好的动力加速性)、高安全可靠性、高舒适性、外观优美、合适的座位数等(即“三低”、“三高”等要求)

1.3.3 新技术

   电脑技术:当代客车如能在整车各个方面都由一个电脑模块控制,并通过电脑模块收集车辆各方面的使用信息和车辆的各种使用状况,车辆整车性能将有一新的突破。

   代用燃料发动机:城市客车将大量使用气体燃料,其中主要是压缩天然气,另外混合动力客车也将越来越多。

   制动性能:城市客车一般行驶于路况比较复杂的城市道路,制动系统的使用频率很高,对车辆制动性能的要求也很严格,不仅要跑得快,而且要站得住,因此,ABS、ASR等装置将成为标准装备。

   操纵性能:配置液压转向助力器、自动变速器等,以便于操纵,降低驾驶员的劳动强度,避免车辆起步、换挡时的冲击,行驶平稳,提高乘坐舒适性,而且还能提高传动系统的可靠性,降低维修成本。客车的转向系统将尽可能采用吸能式转向轴和方向盘,当正面受强烈冲击时,方向机转向轴最大可移50mm,方向盘最大可变形50mm,最大限度地缓和内部硬物对驾驶员产生的冲击。

传动系统:将安装永磁式缓速器,此装置在客车下长坡或由高速减速时,将发挥出非常稳定的制动力,增强行驶时的安全感,还能减轻驾驶疲劳,延长制动摩擦片和轮胎的使用寿命。

1.3.4 新材料

   各种适用于客车的新材料将不断开发和利用,如高强度的车体骨架,并扩大非金属材料及新型装饰材料在车辆上的应用,以适应市场要求。

1.3.5 新工艺

客车制造商将不断采用新工艺,例如将提高车身涂装工艺标准,以便车身骨架防腐能力更强、外形更为美观,逐步实现产品生产的模具化,减少人为影响因素。    第二章  AUTO CAD 在6110型双层客车设计上的应用

2.1前言

   客车是批量生产的复杂的机械产品。传统的手工设计,从图纸绘制到产品批量生产,一般需要5年时间。如果应用计算机辅助设计CAD技术,可使新车开发周期由过去5年缩短为3年,汽车CAD系统支持方案设计,总体设计和详细设计等设计过程的各个阶段。汽车CAD由5个基本功能模块组成:造型,分析设计,自动绘图,动态模拟,数控。自动绘图AUTO CAD支持着详细设计阶段,是汽车CAD最重要的基础。

2.2 AUTO CAD绘图软件介绍

   AUTO CAD是属于交互式计算机绘图软件包之一,使用简单的交互方式,用户可以输入AUTO CAD命令,揭示及数据,通过计算机转换成图形显示。

2.2.1 AUTO CAD绘图软件包的特性

   (1)对话方式输入信息,使用简便,易学易懂;

   (2)适用机种多;

   (3)绘图命令功能强大,并具备扩充能力;

   (4)用途广泛。

2.2.2 AUTO CAD系统的设备组成

   AUTO CAD系统所需设备由计算机和附加于基本计算机之上的外部设备组成。

2.2.3 计算机

  计算机是AUTO CAD 系统的核心部分,各种外部设备均连结在计算机上。AUTO CAD 系统可以使用各种不同类型的计算机,微型计算机,小型计算机,大型计算机均可。

2.2.4 外部设备

   外部设备是用以完成各种特定功能。一个完整的AUTO CAD系统应当包括以下几种外部设备。

   a)绘图仪:绘图仪是用以产生图形的硬拷贝。最常用的绘图仪有笔式绘图仪,打印机式绘图仪和静电绘图仪。

   b)打印机:打印机是可以产生字符信息的硬拷贝。主要有点阵式打印机,字模打印机,激光打印机和喷墨打印机。

   c)显示器:显示器用以监视计算机的工作过程。AUTO CAD系统可以采用单色显示器,也可以采用彩色显示器。

   d)输入设备:如同文字处理系统需要有键盘输入字母,数字和符号一样,AUTO CAD 系统也需要输入设备输入命令,提示及数据。最常用的输入设备有键盘,数字化仪,鼠标,光笔。

2.3 用AUTO CAD 设计提高绘图速度的方法

   AUTO CAD二维绘图软件包可以画各种图形实体,具有进行图形变换,赋予图形属性,编辑已有,提供字符及尺寸标注等多种功能。当客车设计人员使用AUTO CAD 绘图软件绘制图形文件时,关键是AUTO CAD 系统进行二次开发,形成专业的绘图环境,这样在比较熟练的情况下,比手工绘图要快4~5倍,为提高绘图效率,在客车设计计算机辅助设计时,要用以下方法来提高绘图速度。

2.3.1 建立常用符号库

  (1)开发形位公差标注软件。这些形位公差符号放在数字化仪上,可利用鼠标随时选取。形位公差符号如下:直线度,平面度,圆度,对称度,平行度,垂直度,倾斜度,同轴度,同心度,位置度,线轮廓度,面轮廓度和跳动等。

  (2)根据现行国家标准,开发制图标注符号。有斜度,锥度,粗糙度和方向号,剖切号,比例号,焊接符号等八类三十余种。

2.3.2 建立标准件和标准型材库6110型双层客车车身造型及骨架设计

49页 21000字数+说明书+任务书+开题报告+外文翻译+2张CAD图纸【详情如下】

6110型双层客车车身造型及骨架设计开题报告.doc

6110型双层客车车身造型及骨架设计论文.DOC

任务书.doc

前期工作材料.doc

右侧围骨架总成.dwg

后围骨架总图.dwg

外文翻译--中国乘用车燃料经济性标准的组成和影响  中文版.doc

外文翻译--中国乘用车燃料经济性标准的组成和影响  英文版.pdf

调研报告.doc

摘 要

   6110型双层客车车身造型相当重要, 它直接影响整车的视觉效果。文章简要介绍我国客车造型的发展和现状; 较详细说明客车整体、局部造型及内饰技术和在造型中应注意的一些问题, 并展望我国客车造型未来的新局面。

   6110型双层客车车身设计是设计过程中非常重要得一个环节。车身根据其承载形式可分为承载式,非承载式和半承载式。按结构划分,整个骨架分为前围、后围、左侧侧围和顶盖五大部分。

   本次毕业设计主要采用auto CAD软件设计发动机后置的城市中型客车车身骨架的设计过程。文章主要阐述了车身骨架设计原则及依据,介绍了各种车身骨架结构形式,给出了车身骨架设计过程结构与尺寸,并对车身骨架进行了车身骨架的受载分析和强度分析,论了车身骨架的制造工艺.为了满足车身强度要求,车身骨架采用CO2气体保护焊焊接。

   关键词:6110型双层客车   造型   设计    骨架    承载式     受载      焊接

ABSTRACT

    The importance of busmodeling directly influences the bus vision . Th is article briefly introduces Ch inese busmodeling development and p resent situation,more detailedly describes the w hole and partial area modeling, trim tech2nology and some questions needing attention. It also look s forw ard to the future new situation of Ch inese busmodel2ing.

   The 6110body design is an automobile design process Central Africa constant weight fine link.The automobile body acts according to its load bearing form to be possible to divide into the load bearing type, non-load bearing type and half load bearing type. the side encircles with the roof panel five major parts.

   Mainly I use auto for this graduation project the CAD software design engine postpositioned city medium passenger train body frame the design process.The article mainly elaborated the body frame principle of design and the basis.Introduced each kind of body frame structural style, has given the body frame design process structure and the size, and carried on the body frame to the body frame to carry the analysis and the intensity analysis, elaborated the body frame manufacture craft.In order to satisfy the skeleton the intensity request, the entire body frame uses the CO2 shielded welding welding.

Key word: 6110Automobile body     Modeling   Carcase  Design     Skeleton      Load bearing    Welding                   

目录

第一章  绪论5

1.1课题分析及设计定位5

1.1.1 国内外客车的发展现状和对我国长途客车要求的分析5

1.1.2 设计基本思路的定位8

1.2我国客车工业的发展8

1.2.1 我国的客车发展现状8

1.2.2 客车制造工艺的发展 10

1.3国外客车的发展概况及车身造型 1.3.1 车身造型                   12

1.3.2 综合性能  

1.3.3 新技术13

1.3.4 新材料13

1.3.5 新工艺14

第二章  AUTO CAD 在6110型双层客车设计上的应用14

2.1前言15

2.2 AUTO CAD绘图软件介绍15

2.2.1 AUTO CAD绘图软件包的特性15

2.2.2 AUTO CAD系统的设备组成15

2.2.3 计算机15

2.2.4 外部设备15

2.3 用AUTO CAD 设计提高绘图速度的方法16

2.3.1 建立常用符号库16

2.3.2 建立标准件和标准型材库16

2.3.3 开发编辑命令17

2.3.5 建立总成图形库17

2.3.6 相关总成直接调用17

2.4 6110型双层客车应用AUTO CAD的设计优点18

第三章  6110型双层客车车身骨架设计原则和依据19

3.1 车身骨架的作用19

3.2本课题6110型双层客车骨架的设计原则19

3.3 本课题骨架的设计依据21

第四章  各种车身骨架结构形式分析22

4.1 6110型双层客车客车车身结构型式分析22

4.1.1按用途分类22

4.1.2按承载形式分类22

第五章  6110型双层客车车身骨架主要尺寸及结构形式确定26

5.1.车身骨架材料及型式26

5.2结构形式设计26

5.2.1左右侧围骨架设计与分析26

5.2.2 前、后围骨架设计与分析28

5.2.3 顶盖骨架设计与分析29

第六章  6110型双层客车车身骨架强度计算31

6.1车身结构受载分析31

6.2车身骨架强度计算32

6.2.1车身扭矩计算32

6.2.1计算公式36

第七章  6110型双层客车车身骨架制造工艺过程40

7.1 车身骨架的制造40

7.1.1矩形管的剪切切断40

7.2 6110型双层客车车身骨架五大片的合理划分41

7.3 6110型双层客车骨架的焊接工艺41

7.3.1 CO2气体保护焊41

7.3.2  6110型双层客车车身骨架五大片的组焊43

7.3.3 整车骨架联装组焊43

第八章  设计评价分析45

8.1存在的不足45

8.2改进方法45

结 束 语46

致  谢47

1.1课题分析及设计定位

1.1.1 国内外客车的发展现状和对我国长途客车要求的分析

    当今客车的发展日新月异。例如,每年的德国法兰克福世界客车展览会上均汇集了世界客车领先企业的顶尖产品(德国的奔驰公司、尼奥普兰公司、曼公司,瑞典的沃尔沃公司、斯堪尼亚公司等);他们今天展示的全新造型的新产品极有可能就是明天客车外形的发展趋势。21 世纪对各种大、中型客车发展的希望是,在安全、方便、快捷的基础上更舒适和环保,并且充分体现以人为本的要求;具体表现在,除了“三低”(低污染、低消耗、城市客车低地板)和“三高”(高比功率——良好的动力加速性、高安全可靠性、高舒适性)以及外观优美、座位合适、价格适中外,在综合性能方面还应该有新的发展趋势;其中包括,新技术(控制整车的各个方面均由计算机技术实现,代用燃料发动机,为改善制动性能和操纵性能而形成的标准设备,装有永磁式缓速器的传动系统)、适应市场要求的新材料,新工艺(提高车身涂装工艺标准,逐步实现产品生产的模具化)。

   欧洲是世界商用车的中心,拥有诞生世界第一客车的荣耀;在客车诞生 100 多年的今天,依然引领客车工业的方向——从发动机到变速箱、从底盘到车身;其 ECE R66 安全标准正成为世界标准。欧洲大型客车的主要特点是,全承载式车身,发动机功率大、扭矩高,且发动机转速呈下降趋势(当前用柴油机的最大转速平均为 1190r/min);其中,约 80%以上的产品采用空气悬架。这使客车的行驶速度加快,加速性、爬坡性、可靠性增强,经济性、环保性能、安全性更好;侧倾刚度、行驶平顺性、舒适性均有明显提高。目前,它的技术先进性主要表现在以下 4 个方面。

  ①节能技术——采用铝、镁合金、塑料,减小客车车身质量;研制风阻系数小的客车外形,尽可能地降低客车的空气阻力;设计使用天然气、甲醇、乙醇等新能源的客车。

  ②环保技术——改用无铅汽油和电子喷射式汽油机;安装废气处理装置;客车零部件的材料采用可回收利用的。

  ③安全技术——应用计算机仿真技术预示客车多方位碰撞的安全性、翻车时顶盖的强度和刚度、保证乘车人员生存空间的车身结构等;外,增加安全附加装置和采用高新技术产品,如安全带、安全气囊、防抱死制动统(ABS)、加速防滑系统(ASR)、自动差速锁装置(ASD)、缓速器。

  ④底盘技术——采用三段式底盘(半承载式)和无车架式底盘(承载式),使底盘布置形式呈“柔性化”,以适应各种匹配要求。

   自20 世纪 70 年代以来,中国客车经历了近 40 年的发展;引以自豪的是,国产客车基本占据全部国内客车市场,没有出现国外客车大批量拥入中国市场的现象。据统计,近年来的客车年产销量均在 8 万多辆,2005 年的全国从事旅游运营的大中型客车达 60 多万辆。国产客车的各大型龙头企业已具有相当先进的设备和工艺方式、完善的管理经验和与之配套的营销网络,在设计、研制、生产方面具备了一整套完善的技术力量保障措施,能够研制和生产不同档次、不同类型的客车、客车底盘、总成;例如,厦门金龙、郑州宇通、苏州金龙、扬州亚星等大型客车厂家。国产客车能够取得如此成就,其主要原因在于,国产客车在经历了改装、仿制、技术引进、中外合资的历程后,使中国客车工业的整体水平得到极大的提高和客车的整车质量得到稳步发展,缩小了与国外先进客车的差距。

   尽管如此,与国际上先进的客车工业相比,目前仍然存在差距。例如,豪华式客车的制造主要以组装方式进行。这就需要,尽快地自主开发出国产的全承载式车身;迅速增强零部件企业的自主研发能力和扩大它的生产力,使零部件企业的发展与整车企业的发展相匹配;进一步提高客车工业采用数字化设计和制造的整体水平,使新型客车和准高速车身的结构设计彻底摆脱传统的经验设计技术路线。只有这样,我国才能开发出具有国际先进水平的客车产品,才能真正地具有客车工业的核心竞争力。

   近年来,随着改革开放的深入发展,我国的国民经济有了长足的进步,人民的生活水平有了很大的提高,各城市的旅游业也都蓬勃发展,人们也就愿意让自己的节假日在旅游中度过。旅游景点大都以某个大城市为中心。例如,兵马俑在西安的周围。景点虽然属于该城市,但是离市中心又有很远的一段距离,所以往返于城市和景点之间的交通问题体现了出来,旅游讲的就是游玩时那种愉快的心情,而旅途中所乘坐环境是否舒适对游客的旅游心情有很大的影响。这对道路和旅游客车的乘坐舒适性提出了很高的要求,同时也刺激了旅游客车业的发展。随着生活水平的提高势必对长途汽车有更进一步的要求。

1.1.2 设计基本思路的定位

   纵观世界汽车工业沿革,可以看出,现代汽车是沿着“底盘”—“发动机”——“车身”逐步发展完善起来的。这个发展过程不是以人们的主观意志为转移的,而在很大程度上取决于当时的科学技术水平和物质生活水平。由于汽车与日常生活息息相关,为了适应各种不同的目的和用途乃至车辆的更新换代等,其关键在于车身。因此,车身工程是汽车工业中最年轻而又发展最迅速的一个分支。

   而且骨架随底架、造型、总布置的变化而有着较大的改变,这对我自己所学的知识也是一个较大的考验,所以我选择了其中的骨架设计。

近几年来,我国由于引进了国外先进技术,客车生产水平有了明显的提高,但在车身加工,装配,焊接,喷漆等工艺上与国外水平相差很大,再加之企业生产管理落后,导致我国客车生产的工艺水平发展很慢。根据这些, 客车制造工艺的发展

   改革开放以来,国家加大了客车企业的技术改造的支持力度,大中型客车企业通过国家立项,银行贷款,企业自筹,和发行股票等方式筹集资金,“七五“,“八五“和“九五”期间分别投入技改资金7.2亿元,15亿元,和8亿元,进行大规模的技术改造与技术引进,使国外先进的客车制造工艺,装备和技术在客车企业得到推广。

   焊装:1.研制成功先进适用的客车车身专用焊接装备。这些设备结构完善,配套齐全,使用方便,实现了车身焊接的胎具化,提高了产品的质量和劳动生产力,减轻了工人的劳动强度,提高了焊装过程的机械化,自动化水平。

   2.焊接方法普遍采用了生产效率高,操作性稳定的焊接质量优,使用成本低,适应性强和易于实现机械化,自动化的CO2气体保护焊。同时,为了确保车身外观质量,减少变形,单面双点和双面点焊电阻焊越来越多的在侧蒙皮焊接上得到应用。对一些特殊材料和铝板,铝型材,玻璃钢等制成的骨架,蒙皮等,则采用氩弧焊,粘接等其他工艺装配。

   3.对象车身前围和风窗框这样尺寸形状精确要求较高的总成件,除了使用前围焊接夹具外,为了保证装配质量,制作了风窗框检验样价,用来对风窗框进行检验和整形,确保了风窗玻璃的安装精度。

   4.焊接工序的安排,一般采取显示焊装生产流水线,完成六大片和白车身的焊装作业,在主生产线外进行总成的焊接,工艺小车,滑撬等移动工具得到广泛应用,焊接工件的运输实现了机械化。

5.采用可调式的车身,骨架焊装胎具,能够适应客车车身的变化和品种多,批量小的生产特点,实现了车身骨架的柔性化生产。   1.3国外客车的发展概况及车身造型1.3.1 车身造型    在车身造型方面具有如下新特点:

          采用了电子倒车镜,使整车显得雍容华贵;

          侧窗有加大的趋势,目前侧窗设计高度达到或接近1200 mm,约为整个侧围高度的2/5;

          前后保险杠逐渐失去"保险"作用,其外形和整个前后围纵向特性线成为连续光滑曲线,使整车更显得"干净利索" ;

          侧窗造型一改过去的直立柱,多采用曲线立柱,使整车富于变化;

          外形各异的灯具对整车外形"画龙点睛"的作用;

          重视细部造型,如轮罩,一改过去呆板的圆形形状,轮罩的设计更注重和整车的协调统一,同时也更富于变化;

         一些新的外饰件的采用,对整车的造型也起到了不同程度的作用。如侧舱门采用铝合金合页或橡胶合页,豪华客车多采用粘接式前后风挡玻璃及侧窗,也有的采用推拉式侧窗;

          其它外饰件的采用,如侧标志灯、侧反射器、高位制动灯、示廓灯的布置以及车门的型式和布置都对整车的外形有不同程度的作用和影响。

       状的组合灯具,富于变化;车身高度增加,整车造型以小圆角过渡为主,各主要表面如前后围等局部造型更富于变化,粘接侧窗的采用使整车外表更加平整。

1.3.2 综合性能  对于各种大中型客车,要求在安全、方便、快捷的基础上,能更舒适、环保,充分体现以人为本的要求。用户对客车的要求有低污染、低消耗、低地板(对城市客车),价格适中以及高比功率(良好的动力加速性)、高安全可靠性、高舒适性、外观优美、合适的座位数等(即“三低”、“三高”等要求)

1.3.3 新技术

   电脑技术:当代客车如能在整车各个方面都由一个电脑模块控制,并通过电脑模块收集车辆各方面的使用信息和车辆的各种使用状况,车辆整车性能将有一新的突破。

   代用燃料发动机:城市客车将大量使用气体燃料,其中主要是压缩天然气,另外混合动力客车也将越来越多。

   制动性能:城市客车一般行驶于路况比较复杂的城市道路,制动系统的使用频率很高,对车辆制动性能的要求也很严格,不仅要跑得快,而且要站得住,因此,ABS、ASR等装置将成为标准装备。

   操纵性能:配置液压转向助力器、自动变速器等,以便于操纵,降低驾驶员的劳动强度,避免车辆起步、换挡时的冲击,行驶平稳,提高乘坐舒适性,而且还能提高传动系统的可靠性,降低维修成本。客车的转向系统将尽可能采用吸能式转向轴和方向盘,当正面受强烈冲击时,方向机转向轴最大可移50mm,方向盘最大可变形50mm,最大限度地缓和内部硬物对驾驶员产生的冲击。

传动系统:将安装永磁式缓速器,此装置在客车下长坡或由高速减速时,将发挥出非常稳定的制动力,增强行驶时的安全感,还能减轻驾驶疲劳,延长制动摩擦片和轮胎的使用寿命。

1.3.4 新材料

   各种适用于客车的新材料将不断开发和利用,如高强度的车体骨架,并扩大非金属材料及新型装饰材料在车辆上的应用,以适应市场要求。

1.3.5 新工艺

客车制造商将不断采用新工艺,例如将提高车身涂装工艺标准,以便车身骨架防腐能力更强、外形更为美观,逐步实现产品生产的模具化,减少人为影响因素。    第二章  AUTO CAD 在6110型双层客车设计上的应用

2.1前言

   客车是批量生产的复杂的机械产品。传统的手工设计,从图纸绘制到产品批量生产,一般需要5年时间。如果应用计算机辅助设计CAD技术,可使新车开发周期由过去5年缩短为3年,汽车CAD系统支持方案设计,总体设计和详细设计等设计过程的各个阶段。汽车CAD由5个基本功能模块组成:造型,分析设计,自动绘图,动态模拟,数控。自动绘图AUTO CAD支持着详细设计阶段,是汽车CAD最重要的基础。

2.2 AUTO CAD绘图软件介绍

   AUTO CAD是属于交互式计算机绘图软件包之一,使用简单的交互方式,用户可以输入AUTO CAD命令,揭示及数据,通过计算机转换成图形显示。

2.2.1 AUTO CAD绘图软件包的特性

   (1)对话方式输入信息,使用简便,易学易懂;

   (2)适用机种多;

   (3)绘图命令功能强大,并具备扩充能力;

   (4)用途广泛。

2.2.2 AUTO CAD系统的设备组成

   AUTO CAD系统所需设备由计算机和附加于基本计算机之上的外部设备组成。

2.2.3 计算机

  计算机是AUTO CAD 系统的核心部分,各种外部设备均连结在计算机上。AUTO CAD 系统可以使用各种不同类型的计算机,微型计算机,小型计算机,大型计算机均可。

2.2.4 外部设备

   外部设备是用以完成各种特定功能。一个完整的AUTO CAD系统应当包括以下几种外部设备。

   a)绘图仪:绘图仪是用以产生图形的硬拷贝。最常用的绘图仪有笔式绘图仪,打印机式绘图仪和静电绘图仪。

   b)打印机:打印机是可以产生字符信息的硬拷贝。主要有点阵式打印机,字模打印机,激光打印机和喷墨打印机。

   c)显示器:显示器用以监视计算机的工作过程。AUTO CAD系统可以采用单色显示器,也可以采用彩色显示器。

   d)输入设备:如同文字处理系统需要有键盘输入字母,数字和符号一样,AUTO CAD 系统也需要输入设备输入命令,提示及数据。最常用的输入设备有键盘,数字化仪,鼠标,光笔。

2.3 用AUTO CAD 设计提高绘图速度的方法

   AUTO CAD二维绘图软件包可以画各种图形实体,具有进行图形变换,赋予图形属性,编辑已有,提供字符及尺寸标注等多种功能。当客车设计人员使用AUTO CAD 绘图软件绘制图形文件时,关键是AUTO CAD 系统进行二次开发,形成专业的绘图环境,这样在比较熟练的情况下,比手工绘图要快4~5倍,为提高绘图效率,在客车设计计算机辅助设计时,要用以下方法来提高绘图速度。

2.3.1 建立常用符号库

  (1)开发形位公差标注软件。这些形位公差符号放在数字化仪上,可利用鼠标随时选取。形位公差符号如下:直线度,平面度,圆度,对称度,平行度,垂直度,倾斜度,同轴度,同心度,位置度,线轮廓度,面轮廓度和跳动等。

  (2)根据现行国家标准,开发制图标注符号。有斜度,锥度,粗糙度和方向号,剖切号,比例号,焊接符号等八类三十余种。

2.3.2 建立标准件和标准型材库7.3.2  6110型双层客车车身骨架五大片的组焊

   骨架构件在组焊胎具上定位、夹紧和焊接,组焊成骨架各大片。骨架组焊质量包括焊缝质量和骨架变形程度。自此,组焊时应注意减小焊接变形和减少焊接缺陷。

   1)合理选择焊接规范参数。骨架构件在组焊胎具上组装时,焊缝应保留0.3~0.5㎜的装配间隙,这样有利于减小焊缝加强高,加大焊缝的熔深。避免了为加大焊缝熔深而增大焊接电流,使焊接变形和热影响区增大。并注意焊丝质量对焊缝机械性能的影响。关于焊接规范参数的选择,对焊接变形和焊缝质量的影响。

   2)胎具的夹紧力。组焊胎具加紧装置主要作用是防止骨架结构的角变形和扭曲变形。对其平面收缩变形,如任其自由收缩变形,有利于减小焊件的残余应力,提高车身骨架的疲劳强度。因此,胎具的夹紧力应适当。

   3)如果各大片骨架能划分成若干个小组焊件组焊,不但能缩短生产周期,利于新车型开发,而且可以使那些不对称的或收缩力较大的焊缝能自由收缩,而不影响骨架组焊精度,从而减小了焊接变形。

   4)选择合理的焊接顺序。合理的焊接顺序能使骨架的焊接变形和残余应力达到最小,焊接顺序的选择要根据具体骨架结构,在控制整个骨架误差的条件下,保证骨架配合部分的精度,而适当降低非配合部分的精度。

   5)对焊缝的加强高进行打磨。焊缝加强高不仅影响骨架的外观质量,也降低骨架的疲劳强度。磨去焊缝的加强高,可以降低接头的应力集中。打磨方向应与接头受力方向一致。如果焊缝内部没有显著的缺陷,接头的疲劳强度可以提高到和母材强度相同。

7.3.3 整车骨架联装组焊

   整车骨架联装组焊质量主要决定于骨架五大片的正确定位。骨架的定位形式有内定位和外定位两种。内定位采用内定位架定位,外定位采用组装胎定位。

   内定位架为前后各一个,分别横向安装在车架前后桥附近,侧围骨架组焊高度和整车宽度由内定位架定位,但对前后围骨架没有直接定位作用。内定位架使用方便,结构简单,但骨架合装定位误差大,组焊精度差。

   骨架五大片组装胎是一种理想的工艺装备。左右侧围骨架由合装夹具定位夹持,在液压系统操纵下,左右移动,使侧围骨架与车架或车身底架横梁对齐,在相应部位进行预焊。前后围骨架也安装在合装夹具上,移动完成合装定位,在侧围和前后围骨架连接处进行预焊。然后吊入顶盖总成,进行预焊。整车骨架合装后,进行CO2气体保护焊焊接。利用组装胎组焊整车骨架,组焊精度高,质量好。

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内容简介:
Structure and impacts of fuel economy standards for passenger cars in ChinaDavid Vance Wagner?, Feng An, Cheng WangThe Innovation Center for Energy and Transportation, Room 1904, e-Tower Building, No. C12 Guanghua Rd., Chaoyang District, Beijing 100020, Chinaa r t i c l e i n f oArticle history:Received 28 May 2009Accepted 15 July 2009Available online 8 August 2009Keywords:ChinaFuel economyPassenger carsa b s t r a c tBy the end of 2006, there were about 24 million total passenger cars on the roads in China, nearly threetimes as many as in 2001. To slow the increase in energy consumption by these cars, China beganimplementing passenger car fuel economy standards in two phases beginning in 2005. Phase 1 fuelconsumption limits resulted in a sales-weighted new passenger car average fuel consumption decreaseof about 11%, from just over 9l/100km to approximately 8l/100km, from 2002 to 2006. However, weproject that upon completion of Phase 2 limits in 2009, the average fuel consumption of new passengercars in China may drop only by an additional 1%, to approximately 7.9l/100km. This is due to the factthat a majority of cars sold in 2006 already meets the stricter second phase fuel consumption limits.Simultaneously, other trends in the Chinese vehicle market, including increases in average curb weightand increases in standards-exempt imported vehicles, threaten to offset the efficiency gains achievedfrom 2002 to 2006. It is clear that additional efforts and policies beyond Phase 2 fuel consumptionlimits are required to slow and, ultimately, reverse the trend of rapidly rising energy consumption andgreenhouse gases from Chinas transportation sector.& 2009 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.1. IntroductionThe recent growth of Chinas automobile industry has beenstaggering. Rapid rises in production and sales more than doubledthe number of on-road civil vehicles in China, from 18 to 37million, during the period 20012006 alone (CSY, 2007). Inaddition, in 2006, there were over 24 million rural vehicles(CAAMS, 2007) and 81 million motorcycles in China (CATARC,2007b). Though there are certainly many economic and personalbenefits to an increasingly motorized population, this explosion ofvehicles has also contributed to a host of negative effectsthroughout China, including heavily congested streets, stiflingurban air pollution, and rapidly increasing national oil depen-dence and greenhouse gas emissions.In 2004, with primary concern over mitigating Chinas risingoil dependence, the Chinese government issued first-ever nationalfuel economy standards for passenger cars. The first phase of thestandards took effect over the period 20052006. With theimplementation ofthefirst phasenow complete, there isincreasing interest in evaluating and understanding both theimpacts of the current standards as well as the potential impactsof the upcoming second phase of standards.In this paper, we summarize the current Chinese passenger carfuel economy standards in the context of Chinas automobileindustry growth, national oil consumption, and CO2emissions. Wethen explore existing precedents for estimating the historical fueleconomy of Chinas passenger car fleet, and investigate currentChinese vehicle fuel economy data sources. We then perform ourown analysis of Chinese passenger car fuel economy, comparingthese results against other estimates and noting trends. Finally,we describe additional efforts the Chinese government is makingto limit the fuel consumption by Chinas passenger car fleet.2. Background2.1. Vehicle definitionsOfficially, highway vehicles in China are classified according toChinese national standard GB/T 15089-2001, Classification ofPower-driven Vehicles and Trailers (SAC, 2001). This standarddefines vehicle classes in China according to M (passengervehicles) and N (commercial vehicles) classification labels similarto those used in Europe; these are shown in Table 1. All vehiclefuel economy regulations in China, including current and futurepassenger vehicle fuel economy standards as well as commercialvehicle regulations, are based on the categorizations shown inTable 1.However, vehicles in China are additionally classified accordingto a slightly different classification system dictated by theMinistry of Public Security. These classifications are used bothfor official statistical reporting by the National Bureau of Statisticsas well as for administrative management, e.g. licensing. Underthis system, highway vehicles are categorized as passengerARTICLE IN PRESSContents lists available at ScienceDirectjournal homepage: /locate/enpolEnergy Policy0301-4215/$-see front matter & 2009 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.doi:10.1016/j.enpol.2009.07.009?Corresponding author. Tel.: +861065857324; fax: +861065857394.E-mail addresses: dvwagner, dvwagner (D.V. Wagner).Energy Policy 37 (2009) 38033811ARTICLE IN PRESSvehicles, trucks, or others. Among passenger vehicles, vehicles arefurther classified by size as large, medium, small, or minicar. Thisclassification system is shown in Table 2 (MPS, 2008).From Tables 1 and 2, it can be inferred that M1-type vehicles,including M1G, are either small or minicar passenger vehicles.In this report, we consistently use the term passenger car torefer to all vehicles with nine or fewer seats designed primarily forcarrying passengers. This refers to all M1 and M1G-type vehiclesas defined by the Standardization Administration of China, whichis same as all small and minicar passenger vehicles as defined bythe Ministry of Public Security. The term includes MPVs and SUVs.2.2. Historical vehicle population growthThe National Bureau of Statistics of China publishes annualdata on the possession of civil vehicles in China (CSY, 2007). Asdescribedpreviously,vehiclesarecategorizedaspassengervehicles, trucks, or others. Data is given both for total possessionof civil vehicles as well as for private vehicles, a subset of civilvehicles. Among passenger vehicles, beginning in 2002, vehiclesare further classified by size as large, medium, small, or minicar.Passenger vehicle size definitions were given previously in Table 2.According to the definitions in Table 2, we calculate thepossession of passenger cars in China as the sum of the small andminicar data for each year. Prior to 2001, though cars are notseparated out from passenger vehicles in official statistics, for thepurposes of this analysis we have roughly approximated carpossession by assuming 85% of all civil passenger vehicles arepassenger cars, and 90% of all private passenger vehicles areprivate passenger cars. These percentages are rough extrapola-tions based on the figures shown in Table 3.The growth of on-road vehicles by selected categories in Chinais shown in Fig.1. By the end of 2006, there were nearly 24 milliontotal passenger cars on the roads in China, nearly three times asmany as in 2001.Though Fig. 1 shows tremendous growth in possession of alltypes of vehicles, the growth of private passenger cars isparticularly remarkable. In 1990, there were less than 250,000private passenger vehicles (of all sizes) in China; by 2006, therewere over 17.5 million private passenger cars alone. Accordingly,the growth of total on-road vehicles has been increasingly fueledby the growth of private passenger cars. This can be seen fromFig. 2, showing the percentage growth in overall on-road vehiclescoming from various vehicle types. In 2006, 80% of the growth ofon-road vehicles came from the growth of private passenger cars;in 2000, it was just 35% of total growth.The increasing importance of private passenger cars in China isno surprise. As Chinas per capita GDP has risen, so has demandand ownership of vehicles, echoing a common trend around theworld (Ng and Schipper, 2005). In 2006, there were approximately18 passenger cars per 1000 people in China, 14 of which wereprivately owned. Though these ownership rates are significantlysmaller than those of developed countries passenger carownership in the United States being above 800 per 1000 people(Ellis et al., 2008) the recent, rapid rise of vehicle ownership inChina is a major source of concern with respect to the current andfuture energy, environmental, and social impacts of Chinaspassenger car fleet.2.3. Passenger car population projectionsChinese passenger car population projections consideringvarious different growth scenarios were recently made by Wanget al. (2006) and Ng and Schipper (2005). These projections areshown in Fig. 3. Wang et al. projected Chinas passenger carpopulation to equal that currently in the United States by justafter 2030, while Ng and Schipper projected faster growth.Though projecting future passenger car population is beyondthe scope of this paper, it is worth noting that, due to higher-than-expected growth rates of all areas of the Chinese economy,including the automotive sector, projections of future vehiclepopulation from even just a few years ago are already outdated.Because Chinese passenger vehicle growth rates from 2003 to2006 were 26%, 19%, 25%, and 25%, respectively, the 2006population of passenger cars in China, 24 million, is alreadyalmost equal to the 2010 estimate in most of Wang et al. andSchipper and Ngs projections. This may be seen in Fig. 4.2.4. Vehicle energy consumption and CO2emissionsChinas rapid economic growth has demanded more and moreenergy from all sources and for all sectors. Although Chinasofficial energy statistics do not report specific energy consump-tion by the complete transportation sector, a recent report by theInstitute for Energy and Environmental Research Heidelbergestimatedthat,in2003,Chinastransportationsectorwasresponsible for 17% of total national energy consumption (Kn orrand D unnebeil, 2008). This is still significantly lower than that ofEurope, for which the transportation sector uses 27% of totalTable 1Chinese vehicle classifications defined by the Standardization Administration ofChina.Classification DefinitionM1Passenger vehicle with 9 or fewer seatsM1GSUV with 9 or fewer seatsM2Passenger vehicle with more than 9 seats and with curb weight lessthan or equal to 5000kgM3Passenger vehicle with more than 9 seats and curb weight above5000kgN1-3Vehicle used for transporting goodsTable 2Chinese passenger vehicle size classifications defined by the Ministry of PublicSecurity and used by the National Bureau of Statistics.China vehicle size classificationDefinitionPassengerVehiclesMinicarVehicle shorter than 3.5m and with anengine capacity of 1l or lessSmallVehicle shorter than 6m with 9 orfewer seatsMediumVehicle shorter than 6m and holding1019 peopleLargeVehicle longer than 6m or holding 20or more peopleTable 3Percentages of passenger vehicles in China that are passenger cars (calculated fromCSY, 2007, and our estimates).Year(s)Civil passenger cars aspercentage of civilpassenger vehicles (%)Private passenger cars aspercentage of privatepassenger vehicles (%)1990200185 (estimate)90 (estimate)2002859320038794200488952005909620069196D.V. Wagner et al. / Energy Policy 37 (2009) 380338113804ARTICLE IN PRESSenergy consumed (Kn orr and D unnebeil, 2008). However, thispercentage is likely to grow as Chinas automobile industrycontinues to grow and as other industries improve efficiency.The Chinese government is particularly driven to limit energyuse by the transportation sector because this sector is one of themajor consumers of petroleum in the country. As a result of risingpetroleum demand coupled with limited domestic supply, Chinabecame a net importer of petroleum in 1993. As shown in Fig. 5,Chinas petroleum import percentage has grown ever since,reaching 50% in 2006 (CSY, 2007).Because Chinas on-road transportation vehicles are fueledalmost exclusively by gasoline and diesel, much of the rapidgrowth of petroleum consumption in China can be linked to thegrowth of on-road transportation vehicles. CATARC data indicatethat, in 2006, motor vehicles consumed 86.4% of all gasolineconsumed in China and 24.1% of all diesel (CATARC, 2007b).Controlling petroleum consumption by this sector is a critical goalfor China in order to slow the growth in its oil dependence.Though Chinas current energy saving policies primarily targetenergy security, there is increasing pressure internationally anddomestic recognition of the need for China to slow the growth ofits CO2emissions. This is especially true now that China is thoughtto be the worlds largest emitter of greenhouse gases (Rosenthal,2008).Within the transportation sector, the increased use of petro-leum has led to a corresponding increase in CO2emissions fromon-road transportation. Wang et al. estimate that, as early as 2028,Chinas total on-road CO2emissions could match those of theUnited States in 2004 (Wang et al., 2006). However, this may evenbe a low estimate due to higher-than-expected growth, asmentioned previously.05,000,00010,000,00015,000,00020,000,00025,000,00030,000,00035,000,00040,000,0001978YearNumber of VehiclesTotal On-Road Civil Vehicles in China (not incl motorcycles)Total Civil Passenger Cars in ChinaTotal Private Passenger Cars in ChinaTotal Civil Trucks in China19831988199319982003Fig. 1. Possession of civil vehicles in China, by type, 19782006. Solid lines show data from the China National Bureau of Statistics (CSY, 2007). Dotted lines show ourestimates.0%10%20%30%40%50%60%70%80%90%100%2000YearPrivate Passenger CarsNon-Private Passenger CarsTrucksOther Vehicles200120022003200420052006Fig. 2. Percentage growth in overall on-road vehicles coming from various vehicletypes.01002003004005006002000YearNumber of Cars, millionsWang et al Low Growth ScenarioWang el al Mid Growth ScenarioWang et al High Growth ScenarioNg and Schipper Baseline ScenarioNg and Schipper Oil Saved ScenarioNg and Schipper Integrated Transport ScenarioApproximate Current US Car Population2005 2010 2015 2020 2025 2030 2035 2040 2045 2050Fig. 3. Recent Chinese passenger car population projections.01020304050607080901001985YearNumber of Cars, millionsWang et al Low Growth ScenarioWang el al Mid Growth ScenarioWang et al High Growth ScenarioNg and Schipper Baseline ScenarioNg and Schipper Oil Saved ScenarioNg and Schipper Integrated Transport ScenarioActual Population Data1990199520002005201020152020Fig. 4. Chinese passenger car population projections compared with actualpopulation growth. Note that 2006 real passenger car population is alreadygreater than 2010 population estimates in most of the projections.D.V. Wagner et al. / Energy Policy 37 (2009) 380338113805ARTICLE IN PRESSWithin the Chinese transportation sector, trucks are the largestconsumers of energy and emitters of CO2. Wang et al. estimatethat cars in 2000 only consumed 9% of the transportation sectorstotal oil consumption.1He et al. estimate that in 2002, carsaccounted for only about 16% of oil consumption by Chinastransportation sector (He et al., 2005).However, cars were the first sub-sector of transportationtargetedbytheChinesegovernmentforfuelconsumptionregulation for two reasons. First, as we have seen, the proportion-ally faster growth of cars as compared with other types of vehiclesmeans CO2emissions from cars as a percentage of transport sectoremissions will certainly grow. Indeed, Wang et al.s projectionsshow an increasing share of oil consumption from motor vehiclescoming from cars; the percentage of motor vehicle oil consump-tion by cars rises from 9% in 2000 to 17% in 2010, then up to2829% by 2030.2The second reason Chinese policy makerstargeted cars initially for fuel consumption regulation is that thereis stronger international precedent for regulating fuel consump-tion by passenger cars than for commercial vehicles, as thecommercial vehicle sector tends to self-limit fuel consumption foreconomic reasons.3Wang et al.s oil consumption projection figures are given inmillion metric tons (MMT) oil. After applying a simple conversionfactor,4highest and lowest growth scenario projections for CO2emissions from Chinese passenger cars are shown in Fig. 6. Underthe highest growth scenario, CO2emissions from passenger cars inChina would exceed one billion tons by 2050.3. Structure of Chinese passenger vehicle fuel consumptionstandardsRapidly growing passenger vehicle fleet oil consumption andCO2emissions led China in 2004 to adopt National Standard GB19578-2004, Limits of Fuel Consumption for Passenger Cars(SAC, 2004). Though these standards are primarily designed tohelp mitigate Chinas increasing dependence on foreign oil, otherobjectives include encouraging foreign manufacturers to bringstate-of-the-art, efficient vehicle technologies to the Chinesemarket and squeezing out small and less competent domesticmanufacturers.The standard establishes maximum allowable fuel consump-tion limits for vehicles divided into 16 weight classes. Thestandards are implemented in two phases. Phase 1 was imple-mented on July 1st, 2005, for new models, and July 1st, 2006, forcontinued models; Phase 2 was implemented on January 1st,2008, for new models, and will be implemented January 1st, 2009,for continued models. Vehicles are tested using the New EuropeanDrive Cycle (NEDC).The 16 weight classes range from less then 7503500kg. Thestandards cover M1 and M1G-type vehicles, including passengercars, SUVs, and multi-purpose vans (MPVs). Within each weightclass, vehicles are additionally sub-divided into two categories.Vehicles with special structures are defined as those that meetone of three criteria: (a) have automatic transmission; (b) havethree or more rows of seats; (c) are of the type M1G (SUVs). If avehicle meets all the three criteria, it is granted a 6% exemption ofthe limits. For simplicity, this paper will label the two groups asMT (manual transmission) and AT/SUV (automatic transmissionand/or SUV).One distinctive feature of the Chinese standards is that, ratherthan being based on fleet average, they establish maximumallowable fuel consumption limits by weight category. Chinachose a weight-based limit-value approach for more practical asopposed to theoretical reasons. During the time of the creationof the fuel consumption standards, the Chinese car market washighly fragmented, with over one hundred manufacturers. Therewere very few multiple-line manufacturers; many manufacturersoffered only one or two models, thus making the fleet averageapproach meaningless. Additionally, vehicle sales figures in Chinahave been historically secret, unknown, and/or difficult to obtain,making a sales-weighted average approach unpractical. Theweight classification is based on EU emission testing protocol,with more stringent requirements on heavier models; this isdesigned to curb large vehicle and SUV growth in China.Another unique feature of the Chinese fuel economy standardsis that every vehicle manufactured in China is required to meetthe standard for its weight class. There are neither exceptions nora credit system to allow vehicles that exceed compliance to offsetthose that do not.The Chinese passenger car fuel consumption limits are shownin Table 4 and graphed in Fig. 7.Using a methodology to standardize drive cycles, a recentreport by An et al. noted that Chinas passenger car fuel economystandards are more stringent than those in other developednations, including the United States, Canada, South Korea, andAustralia, although not as stringent as the fuel economy standardsin Europe and Japan (An et al., 2007).010000200003000040000500001976YearQuantity, 10,000 tons sceTotal Crude Oil ProductionTotal Crude Oil Consumption198119861991199620012006Fig. 5. Chinas total crude oil production and consumption from 1978 to 2006.0200400600800100012002000YearMillion tons CO2 EmissionsWang et al lowest growth scenarioWang et al highest growth scenario2005 2010 2015 2020 2025 2030 2035 2040 2045 2050Fig. 6. Projections of CO2emissions from Chinas passenger cars, converted fromoil consumption figures.1Estimated from Wang et al. oil consumption data, pp. 4446.2Estimated from Wang et al oil consumption data, pp. 4446.3Though China has recently enacted fuel economy standards for commercialvehicles, as described in Section 4.4Conversion factor of units CO2per unit weight oil calculated as 44/12?88.5%, the approximate carbon content of oil.D.V. Wagner et al. / Energy Policy 37 (2009) 380338113806ARTICLE IN PRESS4. Impacts4.1. Estimates of historical fuel economyLack of data makes accurately estimating the historical fueleconomy of Chinas passenger car fleet challenging. Still, therehave been at least four estimates. The first, performed by He et al.(2005), estimated average on-road fuel consumption of cars inChina from 1997 to 2002 to be 9.07l/100km5(He et al., 2005). Heet al.s methodology was to take manufacturer-supplied best-casefuel economy values (label fuel economy) for dominant vehiclemodels in China and revise them downward by a real-worldadjustment factor.The second estimate was performed by the China AutomotiveTechnology and Research and Center (CATARC) in 2007. Theyestimated the 2002 average fuel consumption of new cars in Chinato be 9.11l/100km (CATARC, 2007a). CATARC used manufacturer-supplied data, but it is unclear how their data and methodologywere different from He et al.s, and what correction factors (if any)were applied.A recent, third estimate performed by the Institute for Energyand Environmental Research Heidelberg (IFEU) estimated Chinesepassenger car 2003 fuel consumption to be 8.4l/100km (Kn orrand D unnebeil, 2008). The IFEUs complete methodology fordetermining this number is not stated, and it is unclear why it issignificantly lower than the other estimates from 2002.A final estimate, performed by An et al. (2007), estimatedChinas 2005 fuel economy to be 8.19l/100km6(An et al., 2007).This estimation was based on proprietary sales figures of newvehicle models sold in China, with fuel economy rates and vehicleweight estimates.4.2. Estimates of current and future fuel economyFull implementation of Phase 1 fuel economy standards wascompleted in 2006. As such, there is increasing interest inevaluating their impacts on new vehicles in China. The first suchimpact analysis was completed in late 2007 by CATARC. Theyestimated the 2006 fuel consumption of new passenger cars inChina to be 8.06l/100km, 11% lower than their 2002 estimate(CATARC, 2007a). CATARCs methodology roughly estimated newfleet fuel consumption based on manufacturer average fuelconsumption and manufacturer total sales. CATARCs averagewasonlymanufacturer-specific,notmodel-specific.ThoughCATARCs report presents the manufacturer data, the data areanonymous (CATARC, 2007a).The only existing future projection of fuel economy of newpassenger cars in China is an estimate by An et al. of the futureimpact of Phase 2 fuel economy standards. An et al. projected2008 fuel consumption of new passenger cars in China to be7.13l/100km7(An et al., 2007). This projection was largely basedon an assumption that the future vehicle weight mix would be thesame as in 2002, the year of the data compiled for the analysis.For this paper, using a sales-weighted, model-specific metho-dology described in the following section, we estimate the 2006average fuel consumption of new passenger cars in China to be7.95l/100km, and project, upon complete implementation ofPhase 2 fuel economy standards, a 2009 new passenger caraverage fuel consumption of 7.87l/100km.A summary of estimates of Chinese new passenger car averagefuel consumption is shown in Table 5, and graphed in Fig. 8.4.3. MethodologyThe first-ever public database of fuel consumption of passen-ger vehicles in China was released in two batches by ChinasNationalDevelopmentandReformCommission(NDRC)inOctober 2006, and July 2007 (NDRC, 2006, 2007). The first batchconsisted of 409 passenger car models, all of which passed thePhase 1 fuel consumption limits. The second batch consisted of2374 passenger car models which passed the Phase 1 fuelconsumption limits, and 444 vehicles which failed. Fuel con-sumption data were not given for the vehicles which failed.Batches 1 and 2 combined to form a database of 2783passenger car models for sale in China. Of these, 1264 (45%) aregeneral type vehicles, while 1519 (55%) are special structurevehicles. As described previously, general type vehicles aremanual transmission vehicles, while special structure vehiclesare defined as those that meet one of the three criteria: (a) haveautomatic transmission; (b) have three or more rows of seats;(c) are of the type M1G (SUVs). Again, for simplicity, this paperwill label the two groups as MT (manual transmission) andTable 4Chinese passenger car fuel consumption limits.Curbweight(kg)Maximum allowable fuel consumption, in l/100-km,as measured using NEDCMTvehicles,Phase 1MTvehicles,Phase 2AT/SUVvehicles,Phase 1AT/SUVvehicles,Phase 27506.6866.99807.778.27.4109081208.613209.58.610.19.114309.8154010.79.711.510.3166011.310.21210.8177011.910.712.611.3188012.4200012.811.513.612.2211013.211.91412.6228013.712.314.513251014.613.115.513.9350015.513.916.414.746810121416300025002000Curb Weight, kgMaximum Fuel Consumption, l/100kmMT, Phase 1MT, Phase 2AT/SUV, Phase 1AT/SUV, Phase 250010001500Fig. 7. Chinese passenger car fuel consumption limits.5Converted from the published value, 11.03km/l.6Converted from the published value, 193gCO2/km.7Converted from the published value, 168gCO2/km.D.V. Wagner et al. / Energy Policy 37 (2009) 380338113807ARTICLE IN PRESSAT/SUV (automatic transmission and/or SUV). Though the NDRCprovided no supporting information regarding completeness ofthe database, it is assumed that this database covers all passengercar models available for sale in China during approximately thefirst year after Phase 1 fuel economy standards went into effect forall vehicles. The fuel economy and weight data provided in thetwo NDRC data sets are graphed in Figs. 9 and 10 against bothPhase 1 and Phase 2 fuel consumption limits.In this paper, we assume that the analysis of these combineddata sets yields reasonable estimates of the fuel economy of newpassenger vehicles sold in China over the period late 2006 to early2007. However, two caveats must be mentioned. First, we applyno real-world driving correction factor to the NDRC data, due tolackof datacomparing Chinese drivingbehavioracrosshundreds of cities to the NEDC. Second, it is unknown andunclear what level of production compliance to the current fueleconomy standards exists. Whether fuel economy achieved bydrivers in China matches those reported by the NDRC is a criticalarea for further study.For this paper, we matched the NDRC data sets with 2006 salesdata by model for 731 vehicle models whose combined sales totaled87% of overall passenger car sales. The sales data were taken fromthe Automotive Industry of China yearbook published by CATARC(2007b). We then performed the following analysis:(1) Estimate overall and manufacturer-specific sales-weightedaverage fuel economy of new vehicles sold in China in 2006.(2) Estimate overall sales-weighted percentage of current vehi-cles that will not meet Phase 2 fuel economy standards.(3) Estimate potential effect of Phase 2 standards using a roughassumption that all vehicles currently exceeding Phase 2standards will meet them by the final implementation date,January 1st, 2009.There are at least two areas where potential error may beintroduced into our analysis. First, because of lack of availabledata, we were unable to consider sales of 100% of all passengercars in China. Second, because the NDRC data sets do not provideclear dates as to their validity, we were forced to match 2006 salesmatched to what are presumably 20062007 fuel consumptiondata.4.4. Sales-weighted fuel economyThe sales-weighted fuel consumption (overall and by manu-facturer) is calculated by the following equation, where m is themodel:Average fuel consumptionXmFuel consumption?msalesm=total salesThe overall result plus individual results for the top 27passenger car manufacturers in China are shown in Table 6.Overall, we estimate the 20062007 fuel economy of newpassenger cars in China to be 7.95l/100km. The sales-weightedmost efficient manufacturer is Chery, while the sales-weight leastTable 5Summary of estimates of Chinese new passenger car average fuel consumption.Report authors and yearYearHe et al.(2005)CATARC(2007a)An et al.(2007)Kn orr andD unnebeil(2008)Thisstudy199720029.0720029.1120038.4200420058.1920068.067.95200720087.1320097.879.079.078.098.47.867.956.577.588.599.51996YearFuel Consumption, l/100kmHe et al., 2005Jin et al., 2007An et al., 2007Knrr and Dnnebeil, 2008This study1998200020022004200620082010Fig. 8. Summary of estimates of Chinese new passenger car average fuelconsumption.4681012141630002500200015001000500Curb Weight, kgMaximum Fuel Consumption, l/100kmPhase 1 Fuel ConsumptionLimits for MT VehiclesPhase 2 Fuel ConsumptionLimits for MT VehiclesMT Vehicles Data SetFig. 9. NDRC fuel consumption and weight data for manual transmissionpassenger cars for sale in China.4681012141630002500200015001000500Curb Weight, kgMaximum Fuel Consumption, l/100kmPhase 1 Fuel ConsumptionLimits for AT/SUV VehiclesPhase 1 Fuel ConsumptionLimits for AT/SUV VehiclesAT/SUV Data SetFig. 10. NDRC fuel consumption and weight data for automatic transmission andSUV passenger cars for sale in China.D.V. Wagner et al. / Energy Policy 37 (2009) 380338113808ARTICLE IN PRESSefficient manufacturer is Daimler-Benz. The sales-weighted low-est weight manufacturer is BYD, while the sales-weighted highestweight manufacturer is Great Wall.4.5. Impacts of Phase 2China Phase 2 fuel economy standards for passenger cars tookeffect on January 1st, 2008, for existing models, and will takeeffect on January 1st, 2009, for continued models. The NDRC hasnot yet released any data regarding compliance to the newstandards.Within the NDRC data sets described previously, 32% of overallvehicle models do not meet Phase 2 standards. Among MTvehicles, 34% do not meet the standards, while among AT/SUVvehicles, 30% do not meet the standards.Although 32% of passenger car models for sale in China in 2006did not meet Phase 2 fuel economy standards, by closelyexamining sales figures we can see that the vast majority ofpassenger cars sold in 2006 either already meet the Phase 2standards or only barely exceed them. Therefore, we do not expectto see a significant decrease in sales-weighted average fuelconsumption for new passenger cars in China upon completeimplementation of Phase 2 fuel economy standards. Figs. 11and 12 show the 731 vehicle models which make up 87% of 2006passenger car sales mapped against the Phase 2 fuel consumptionlimits alone.Here, we make a rough estimate of the potential impact of thePhase 2 standards by taking a sales-weighted fuel economyaverage using the assumption that all vehicles not currentlymeetingPhase2standardswillmeetthemaximumfuelTable 62006 sales figures and sales-weighted weight and fuel economy averages for top 27 passenger car manufacturers in China.Manufacturer2006 passengervehicle salesSales-weightedaverage weight (kg)Sales-weighted average fuelconsumption (l/100-km)Chery Automobile Co. Ltd.274,24210106.93Tianjin FAW Xiali Automobile Co. Ltd.196,8179246.95Jiangxi Changhe Automoblie Co. Ltd.116,16710617.13Hafei Motor Co. Ltd.202,86210347.25Zhejiang Geely Holding (Group) Co. Ltd.182,9389687.46BYD Auto Co. Ltd.60,1168557.52Changan Automobile (Group) Liability Co. Ltd.497,87710877.63FAW Haima Motor Co. Ltd.80,21812127.74SAIC GM Wuling Automobile Co. Ltd.408,43210007.8Guangzhou Honda Automobile Co. Ltd.224,31912137.81Dongfeng Yueda-Kia Automobile Co. Ltd.110,37712907.88Dongfeng Honda Automobile Co. Ltd.63,37314457.88Dongfeng Peugeot Citroen Automobile Co. Ltd.201,31611627.89Dongfeng Yuan Vehicle Co. Ltd.46,80110327.97FAW Car Co. Ltd.52,07514048.05Dongfeng Nissan Passenger Vehicle Co. Ltd.188,27013228.13FAW Toyota Motor Sales Co. Ltd.208,23513758.36FAW-Volkswagen Automobile Co. Ltd.345,52913328.41Nanjing Automobile (Group) Corporation28,13911038.47Shanghai General Motor Co. Ltd.370,11413538.58Shanghai Volkswagen Automotive Co. Ltd.329,36713258.59Beijing Hyundai Motor Company289,99014808.87Shenyang Brilliance Jinbei Automotive Co. Ltd.61,83714499.26Great Wall Automobile Holding40,06217189.63BMW Brilliance Automotive Co. Ltd.23,73515569.65Guangzhou Toyota Automobile Co. Ltd.61,254152010.1Beijing Daimler-Benz Chrysler Automobile Ltd.18,155161010.34Overall7.95These sales numbers total 87% of 2006 passenger car sales in China.4681012141630002500200015001000500Curb Weight, kgMaximum Fuel Consumption, l/100kmPhase 2 Fuel Consumption Limits forMT VehiclesMT Vehicles comprising 87% of 2006SalesFig.11. Fuel consumption and weight data for manual transmission passenger carscomprising 87% of car sales in China.4681012141630002500200015001000500Curb Weight, kgMaximum Fuel Consumption, l/100kmPhase 2 Fuel Consumption Limits forAT/SUV VehiclesAT/SUV Vehicles comprising 87% of 2006SalesFig. 12. Fuel consumption and weight data for automatic transmission and SUVpassenger cars comprising 87% of car sales in China.D.V. Wagner et al. / Energy Policy 37 (2009) 380338113809ARTICLE IN PRESSconsumption standard upon implementation. Using this metho-dology, we roughly approximate 2009 new Chinese passenger carfuel economy to be 7.87l/100km.4.6. Other issues and effectsOverall, the average fuel consumption of new passenger cars inChina is decreasing. However, there are several troubling signsthat this trend may not continue if additional measures are not inplace. CATARC recently published additional analysis showingchanges to the Chinese passenger car fleet from 2002 to 2006,including:?an increase of 8%, from 150 to 162km/h, in the averagemaximum design speed of passenger cars (CATARC, 2007a);and,?an increase of 10.2%, from 1230 to 1356kg, in average curbweight of passenger cars in China (CATARC, 2007a).Paralleling average maximum design speed and weight in-creases are increases in numbers of SUVs sold, largely due to asurge in SUV imports. In the first part of 2007, SUV market growthin China outpaced overall passenger car market growth by a factorof three (Ellis et al., 2008). Though the Chinese passenger car fueleconomy standards are designed to be bottom heavy intendedto curb the growth of heavier and less efficient vehicles theresults are mixed. While most domestically-made models havebeen kept smaller in power and engine size than their US andEuropean counterparts, a general trend towards faster, larger,heavier vehicles is still pervasive and could offset potentialadditional gains in sales-average fuel consumption in the nextfew years.Additionally, it should be mentioned that, while all thepassenger car models manufactured within Chinese boarders aresubject to the fuel consumption limits, imported vehicle modelsare exempt. Most of the imported models are luxury models withlarge engines (42.5l) or large SUVs, and as such most almostcertainly do not meet the standards. The Chinese government hasbeen struggling with how to control energy consumption by thesevehicles, particularly because banning luxury models is not apragmatic option. Developing a penalty tax scheme for vehiclemodels which exceed fuel consumption limits is clearly the mostlogical approach; however, progress on this development hasbeen slow.In recent years, the number of vehicles imported into China hasincreased dramatically. According to a report by China TradingCenter for Automobile Imports, imports increased 41% from 2005to 2006, and more than 30% from 2006 to 2007 (CTCAI, 2008). Thetotal imported vehicles jumped from 160,000 to more than300,000 units in two years, with SUVs leading, increasing morethan 100% in the past two years. This imports loophole hascreated a serious concern that wealthy and powerful consumerscan get away from fuel economy regulations, and the importedmodels could significantly undermine the efficiency progress thathas been made in the domestic market. Further, detailed analysisof the energy impact of imported vehicles in China is an importantarea for future study, especially as the Chinese governmentdebates measures to deal with this issue.5. Other policies and future fuel economy standardsFuel consumption limits on passenger cars are only one ofseveral policies China has implemented to control energy use andgreenhouse gas emissions by vehicles in the transportation sector.Some additional policies and programs are described briefly inthis section.5.1. Vehicle taxationChina has implemented a series of progressively strictervehicle manufacturing taxes that are significantly higher forlarger engines. The current and historical taxation rates are shownin Table 7.As described previously, the growth of vehicle weight and SUVsales has continued to outpace smaller passenger cars, despite thesignificantly higher taxes levied on these vehicles larger engines.Presumably, this is because the purchasers of these vehicles arewealthier customers with less susceptibility to price changes. Thenew tax rates effective September 2008 are designed to limit thisgrowth, though it is unclear yet what the impact is.5.2. Fuel economy labelingTo promote consumer awareness of energy consumption, onJuly 1st, 2008, China implemented first-ever mandatory fueleconomy labeling for passenger vehicles. The label, to be placedon the vehicles window, displays fuel consumption estimates forhighway, city, and overall average driving patterns.5.3. Other fuel economy standardsBesidesPhase1and2fuel consumption standardsforpassenger cars, China has also implemented fuel consumptionstandards for commercial N1-type vehicles with gross vehicleweight rating less than 3.5 tons (SAC, 2007) and rural vehicles(SAC, 2008a,b). Fuel economy regulations for heavy commercialtrucks are also under development.Phase 3 and 4 fuel economy standards for passenger vehiclesare under discussion, though it is unclear when or if thesestandards will be issued.6. ConclusionsWith Chinas car ownership still relatively low, there is a keyopportunity now for the Chinese government to implement aseries of fiscal and fuel economy policies designed to guide thedevelopment of the automobile industry in a sustainable, energyefficient direction. Though significant progress has been made particularly the implementation of Phase 1 and Phase 2 fueleconomy standards and progressive vehicle taxation based onengine size there are concerns that further efficiency gains willbe leveled off by rising average vehicle weight and increasing salesof SUVs and imported vehicles exempt from the regulations. ThereTable 7Manufacturer taxes levied on passenger vehicles in China (, 2008;MOF,
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