维京人简史.doc

_维京人是中世纪生活在北欧地区的一个庞大群体。严格来说，他们不是一个民族，也不是一个国家，而是一个区域和文化概念。英文中，“维京”写作“viking”，意为“来自峡湾的人”，在大多数情况下，我们现在谈论的“维京人”，主要指的是一批来自北欧斯堪的纳维亚半岛的挪威人（Norse）。自8世纪起，迫于恶劣的生存环境，挪威人开始泛舟出海，四处冒险、寻找财富，渐渐地上述行为衍变成了一次能集结上百艘战舰的有计划的侵略战争，欧陆沿海各地很快都笼罩在北欧海盗的阴影下。古英语文献盎格鲁-撒克逊编年史（Anglo-Saxon Chronicle）第一次使用“维京人”来指称挪威海盗。公元793年，海盗在苏格兰东北部的林迪斯法恩（Lindisfarne）登陆，一路烧杀抢掠，“维京”（viking）在古英语里正是“强盗、抢劫犯”的意思。 “以大海为后院、以战舰为长靴”的维京人，自从其“横空出世”以来，在欧洲各地的劫掠可谓“打遍天下无敌手”。这其中的原因，无疑要归功于维京人先进的造船工艺，精湛的武器锻造技术，以及彪悍勇猛的铁血性格。至9世纪末，维京人已经在北至斯堪的纳维亚半岛，南至意大利西西里岛，东至俄罗斯内陆的伏尔加河与顿河流域，西至大不列颠与爱尔兰的广阔地带建立起了一个强盛的“海盗帝国”。 8-11世纪维京人活动范围图，绿色区域为其定居点，蓝色线条为其打通的航路在这样的背景下，冰岛，这个孤悬于世界尽头的岛屿，在9世纪之前一直是杳无人烟的，直到公元874年，维京人选择再度向西进发，将“处女地”冰岛纳入控制范围。根据成书于12世纪初叶的冰岛历史文献冰岛人之书（slendingabk）记载，率领第一批移民定居冰岛的是一位名叫英戈尔夫阿尔纳松（Inglfur Arnarson）的头领，他和他的家族部众们从挪威出发，最后在冰岛的西南海岸登陆，并在今天的雷克雅未克附近建起了居民点。阿尔纳松由此成为了第一个名副其实的冰岛人。 油画登陆冰岛的维京人（Norsemen landing in Iceland），由挪威画家Oscar Wergeland绘于1877年在阿尔纳松之后，维京人向冰岛的迁移脚步没有停止，与冰岛人之书差不多写于同一时期的定居者之书（Landnmabk）显示，从870年到930年，初期的冰岛移民潮持续了大概60多年，总计有435人在冰岛扎下根来，其中的大部分人选择集中居住在岛的西南部和北部，这段时间在冰岛历史上被称作“定居者时代”（The age of settlement）。The Vikings were a large group living in the Nordic region in the Middle Ages. In fact, they are not a nation or a country, but a regional and cultural concept. In most cases, now the Viking we are talking about mainly referring to a group of Norse from Scandinavia.Since the eighth century, due to the harsh living environment, Norwegians began to sail to sea, take risks and seek wealth everywhere. Gradually, they became a planned war of aggression that could assemble hundreds of warships, the coastal areas of Europe were soon shrouded in the shadow of the Nordic pirates.The ancient English document Anglo-Saxon Chronicle first used the term Viking to refer to Norwegian pirates. In 793, pirates landed in Lindisfarne, northeastern Scotland, burning, killing and looting all the way. Viking means robber in ancient English.Since the birth of the Vikings, whose backyard is the sea and their boots are the warships, they invincible all over the Europe. The reason for this is undoubtedly due to the advanced shipbuilding technology of the Vikings, the exquisite forging technology of weapons, and their brave character in their blood.By the end of the ninth century, the Vikings had established a strong pirate empire in the vast areas of Europe.Under this background, Iceland, an island which far from the civilization, be settled by Vikings until 874. In A.D. 874, the Vikings chose to move westward again, then brought Iceland under control.According to the Icelandic historical document Slendingabok(斯兰丁格博客) written in the early twelfth century, the first immigrants to settle in Iceland were led by a leader named Inglfur Arnarson（英格鲁飞阿尔纳松）, who set out from Norway with his family and landed on the southwestern coast of Iceland, and built a resident near todays Reykjavik(雷克雅未克). After Alason, the migration of the Vikings to Iceland did not stop. A book named Landnamabok(兰德那玛博客), written almost at the same time as the Slendingabok(斯兰丁格博客), showed that from 870 to 930, the initial Icelandic immigrants lasted for about 60 years. A total of 435 people settled in Iceland. Most of them chose to live in the southwest and north of the island. This period is known in Icelandic history as the age of settlement.政治欧洲历史上第一个议会“阿耳庭”（Alingi/ parliament）是维京人创立的。由于北欧社会间一直存留有成年男性聚集开会，解决重要议题的习俗。公元930年，冰岛人在雷克雅未克郊外的辛克瓦莱峡谷（ingvellir）召开了一次自由人大会。这次大会被称作“阿耳庭”（Alingi），会议制定颁布了冰岛最古老的法典灰雁法典（Grgs / Grey Goose），对此后冰岛的历史发展产生了十分深远的影响。灰雁法典的核心内容便是规定了古代冰岛各级权力机关的组成形式。首先，法典将全岛划分为若干个“庭”（goor），与我们一般的认识不同，这里的“庭”没有确切的地理边界，它只是一个同一定数量的农民有关的统计单位，所以全岛“庭”的个数是时常变化的，一般是36个，有时也会达到39或48个。每个“庭”会安置一个头领（goar / chieftain），全岛36个头领便组成了冰岛最高权力机关“阿耳庭”（Alingi / parliament）围绕着“阿耳庭”，灰雁法典确立了一整套包含立法、行政、司法的制度设计，这套制度安排已经初步具备了一定的代议制民主元素，而一个松散的“冰岛共和国”（Icelandic Commonwealth）也就在这样的基础上诞生了。今天的冰岛人一直十分自豪自己的国家创造了欧洲历史上第一个议会，这个论断在某种程度上确实是有道理的，因为我们在阿耳庭的运作过程中的的确确能看到一些现代西方政治的影子：譬如，“庭”里面的自由民和头领的关系就很像现在选民和政客的关系，由于“庭”本身不是一个具有规定边界的单位，所以某个“庭”里的民众在理论上是没有效忠该“庭”头领的义务的，他们可以随时改变效忠对象，去支持别的头领，而这种行为会直接导致原头领在阿耳庭中落选。当然，“阿耳庭”能够在冰岛出现也有它的特殊性，维京人一贯的粗犷明快的生活作风，保证了这个权力比较分散的议事系统能够正常运转，而在同一时期欧洲的其他地方，类似这样“大家一起商量着办”的政治模式已经被复杂的封建领主制完全取代了。The first parliament in European history, Alingi, was founded by the Vikings.The Nordic society has a tradition of adult males meeting together to solve important issues. In 930, Icelanders held a Congress of the Free People in the Sinkvalley.The conference, known as Alingi, enacted and promulgated the oldest Icelandic code, the Grey Goose Code, which has had a far-reaching impact on Icelands historical development.The core content of the Grey Goose Code is to stipulate the form of power organs at all levels in ancient Iceland. First of all, the Code divides the whole island into several goor. Unlike our general understanding, the goor here has no exact geographical boundary. It is only a statistical unit related to a certain number of farmers. Therefore, the number of goors in the whole island varies from time to time, generally 36, sometimes 39 or 48.The relationship between the free people and the leaders in the goor is very similar to the relationship between voters and politicians nowadays. Since the goor itself is not a unit with prescribed boundaries, the people in a goor have no obligation to loyalty to the head of the goor in theory. They can change their loyalty objects at any time to support other leaders, and this kind of behavior will directly lead to the original leader will vote out of the goor. Around the Alingi, the Grey Goose Code has established a set of system design including legislation, administration and justice. This system arrangement has initially possessed some elements of representative democracy, and a loose Icelandic Commonwealth was born on this basis.经济自8世纪起，维京人开始出海通过抢劫寻找财富，渐渐地上述行为衍变成了一次能集结上百艘战舰的有计划的侵略战争，欧陆沿海各地很快都笼罩在北欧海盗的阴影下。维京人就像是蒙古人，一开始主要通过掠夺来获取财富。但是在冰岛的维京人则主要靠捕鱼业作为重要的经济来源。9世纪末，通过移民在冰岛经过一段时间的艰辛探索，他们意识到冰岛还远谈不上是生活不下去的“世界尽头。他们发现冰岛近海有十分丰富的渔业资源，特别是鳕鱼，每到冬季大量的鳕鱼会游至冰岛的南部海岸过冬。作为“北欧海盗”，捕鱼可以说是这些挪威移民的看家本领了，可以想象，捕鱼业很快就成了维系整个冰岛社会存续的主要产业，尽管有据可查的冰岛鱼产品出口要到1300年才出现在历史文献当中。其实，在现代的捕捞技术还没出现以前，捕鱼是项十分辛苦的差事，完全只能靠人力来完成。每当冬季捕鱼季到来的时候，冰岛的渔民们会先前往建在海岸边的茅草小屋里集中居住，以方便及时出海。捕鱼的船只往往就是一艘可容纳六人或八人的木划子，渔民会在清晨把船划到远离海岸的捕鱼地点，撒下饵料和渔网耐心等待鱼群上钩，他们有时可能就要这样干等上一整天，而捕捞到鱼之后，他们还要想方法把沉甸甸的船再划回岸上。Since the eighth century, the Vikings began to go out of sea to seek wealth through robbery. The Vikings, like the Mongols, initially acquired wealth mainly through plunder.But the Vikings in Iceland rely on fishing as an important source of income. At the end of the ninth century, after a period of hard exploration by the first group of immigrants, they realized that Iceland is not a worthless land. They found that Iceland is rich in fish resources, especially cod(卡得), which swim to the southern coast of Iceland every winter.As pirates, fishing can say is the housekeeping skills of these Norwegian immigrants. It can be imagined that fishing industry has quickly become the main industry to maintain the survival of the whole Icelandic society, although the export of Icelandic fishery products can be documented in the historical literature until A.D. 1300s.In fact, before modern fishing technology appear, fishing was a very hard job and could only be accomplished by manpower. When the winter fishing season arrives, Fishermen will row the boat to fishing place where far away from the coast in the early morning, work whole day, then pull boat back on the land after fishing.宗教Old Norse religion is the most common name for a branch of Germanic religion which developed during the Proto-Norse period, when the North Germanic peoples separated into a distinct branch of the Germanic peoples.Old Norse religion was polytheistic, entailing a belief in various gods and goddesses. Norse mythology divided these deities into two groups, the sir and the Vanir, who engaged in an ancient war until realising that they were equally powerful. Among the most widespread deities were the gods Odin and Thor. This world was inhabited also by various other mythological races, including giants, dwarfs, elves, and land-spirits. But the end of the Ola Norse religion is be succumbed(撒抗木de) to Christianity at the twelfth century.社会维京人社会分为三个社会经济阶层：萨尔斯、卡尔斯和贾尔斯。萨尔是最低级的阶级，也是奴隶。奴隶占总人口的四分之一120奴隶制对于维京人社会、日常杂务和大规模建设以及贸易和经济都至关重要。卡尔斯是自由农民。他们拥有农场、土地和牛群，从事诸如耕地、挤奶、建造房屋和货车等日常杂务，但使用鞭打使收支平衡。卡尔斯的其他名字是“邦德”或简单的自由人。这些罐子是维京人社会的贵族。他们很富有，拥有大型的地产，拥有巨大的长房子、马和许多奴隶。The Viking society was divided into the three socio-economic classes: Thralls, Karls and Jarls.Thralls were the lowest ranking class and were slaves. Slaves comprised as much as a quarter of the population. Slavery was of vital（vai tal） importance to Viking society, for everyday chores and large scale construction and also help with trade. Karls were free peasants(pa sents). They owned farms, land and cattle and engaged in daily chores like ploughing( pe lao ying) the fields, milking the cattle, building houses. Other names for Karls were bonde or simply free men.The Jarls were the aristocracy of the Viking society. They were wealthy and owned large estates with huge longhouses, nice horses and many thralls.艺术，建筑 1890年发现于挪威的“戈克斯塔德”战舰（Gokstad ship），推定建造时间为890年左右，修复后战舰全长23.24米、宽5.2米，集中展现了维京人的造船工艺This longboat named Gokstaed ship been found in Noway in 1890, it was inferred built around A.D.890 1943年于挪威出土的维京人铁制头盔 Gjermundbu helmet，锻造时间约为公元10世纪海盗艺术，一般来说，目前对海盗艺术的了解很大程度上依赖于更耐用的金属和石头物品；木材、骨头、象牙和纺织品很少被保存；历史资料表明，人类的皮肤经常被精心纹身，但没有现存的地方，也不太可能存活下来。因此，艺术记录至今仍不完整。当然，正在进行的考古发掘和机会主义发现，可能会改善这种情况在未来，因为他们确实在最近的过去。Generally speaking, the current knowledge of Viking art relies heavily upon more durable objects of metal(mai tal) and stone; wood, bone, ivory and textiles are more rarely preserved; human skin, which historical sources indicate was often elaborately tattooed, is nowhere extant and is unlikely to have survived. The artistic record therefore, as it has survived to the present day, remains significantly incomplete. Ongoing archaeological excavation and opportunistic finds, of course, may improve this situation in the future, as indeed they have in the recent past.对于这些初来乍到的挪威移民来说，冰岛的环境简直是令人绝望的，岛上看不见一棵树，到处覆盖着熔岩砂砾与坚硬的冻土，荒凉的山峰间，冰河肆意流淌，一到冬季，狂风裹挟着暴雪，把大地覆盖得严严实实。为了对抗岛上的恶劣气候，移民们建造起一种半地穴式的“干打垒”房屋，房子一般用坚固的石料堆叠而成，并且在外面盖上厚厚的茅草，这种房子兼顾了防风与保暖的双重效用，成为了此后冰岛传统民居的主流样式。For these first-time Norwegian immigrants, Icelands environment is desperate. There is no tree on the island. In winter, the wind wraps up the snow and covers the land tightly.In order to combat the harsh weather on the island, immigrants built a semi-underground dry stronghold house, which was usually stacked with solid stones and covered with thick thatch. This house, which combines the dual effects of wind protection and warmth, became the mainstream style of traditional Icelandic dwellings.发明Longboat维京长艇是一个工程奇迹，在中世纪世界是无与伦比的。维京人在战争、贸易和探险中享有优势，这得益于他们的船只灵活、耐用的设计，以及根据风的不同方向航行的能力。维京人历史和文化方面的专家威廉肖特博士指出，船上特别浅的吃水使他们能够在浅水区作业。特尔。因此，他们可以沿河而上，“在没有人预料到会出现远洋船只的地方给人们带来惊喜。”维京人从他们在斯堪的纳维亚的家中出发，向西航行到维恩兰（纽芬兰），向东航行到俄罗斯，向东南航行到拜占庭帝国（土耳其）的一部分。因此，他们使用了贝塔斯，一种“长艇可以在不断变化的风中航行，使其具有高度的机动性。与当时的其他船只不同，海盗船也有着惊人的灵活性。正如短文所指出的，“它们并没有牢牢地钉在一起，所以它们实际上是被海浪弯曲的，而不是承受海浪的全部力量，可能会断裂。”他们的船只的柔性设计是另一个特征，使得海盗船可以在海上航行。波涛汹涌的大海。The Vikings enjoyed advantages in war, trade, and exploration thanks to their longboats flexible, durable designs and their ability to sail in many different directions according to the wind.As a result using the beitass, a “spar that helped to brace the sail against strong winds,” longboats could tack with changing winds, making them highly maneuverable(ma nu ver ble). Unlike other ships of the time, Viking longboats were also amazingly flexible.Their ships flexible design was another characteristic that allowed the Vikings to sail the open sea despite(dis bye te) rough waves. 四、冰岛人发现新大陆在开拓者们的努力下，冰岛的几个定居点都渐渐变得人丁兴旺了；而对于维京人来讲，控制冰岛的好处并不仅仅是可以在这里捞鱼。冰岛成为了维京人继续扬帆西驶，探索新航路的中转站。982年，维京探险家埃里克托瓦德松（Erik Thorvaldsson / Erik the Red, 950-1003）率领14艘船驶离冰岛，抵达了一海之隔的格陵兰，并在岛上建起了三个定居点。 位于雷克雅未克哈尔格林姆大教堂前的雷夫埃里克森雕像，由美国政府于1930年赠予冰岛，以纪念埃里克森发现新大陆（笔者摄于2016年7月）与托瓦德松相比，他的儿子雷夫埃里克森（Leif Erikson / Leif the Lucky, 970-1020）更加大名鼎鼎，至今冰岛人坚信埃里克森比哥伦布提前五百年发现了新大陆。依照写于1265年的埃里克萨迦（Eirks saga raua）中的说法，埃里克森在公元1000年的一次由挪威返回格陵兰的航程中，由于船队偏离方向，驶经了一块过去未知的大陆，并曾于当地短暂停留。这块大陆被称为“Vinland”，是块到处长着葡萄和成熟麦穗的地方，萨迦里甚至记载了维京人与当地的原住民相互联络的内容，根据这些线索，有人推测埃里克森所到之处就是今天加拿大东南部的圣劳伦斯河入海口区域，包括纽芬兰以及新布伦瑞克等地，而维京人遇到的原住民无疑就是北美的印第安人了。 维京人造访北美的可能路线可是由于缺乏实物佐证，仅凭埃里克萨迦这种史诗中的记载，还是无法断定埃里克森到访新大陆的真实性。直到上世纪60年代，考古学家在加拿大纽芬兰岛的最北端，一个叫做兰塞奥兹牧场（LAnse aux Meadows）的地方发现了一处维京人的定居点遗迹，才终于证明了维京人在哥伦布之前造访北美大陆是确凿无疑的。由此可见，以冰岛为中心，当时“北欧海盗”的势力已辐射至北大西洋沿岸各处。With the efforts of the pioneers( pai near), several settlements in Iceland have gradually become thriving( se rai ving). But for the Vikings, the benefits of controlling Iceland are not just fishing there. Iceland has become a transit point for the Vikings to continue sailing westward and explore new routes.In A.D. 982, the Viking Explorer Erik