电子类文献中英文翻译(发电机).doc

ENGLISH ORIGINAL TEXTDC GENENRATORS1. INTRODUCTION For all practical purposes, the direct-current generator is only used for special applications and local dc power generation. This limitation is due to the commutator required to rectify the internal generated ac voltage, thereby making largescale dc power generators not feasible. Consequently, all electrical energy produced commercially is generated and distributed in the form of three-phase ac power. The use of solid state converters nowadays makes conversion to dc economical. However, the operating characteristics of dc generators are still important, because most concepts can be applied to all other machines.2. FIELD WINDING CONNECTIONS The general arrangement of brushes and field winding for a four-pole machine is as shown in Fig.1. The four brushes ride on the commutator. The positive brusher are connected to terminal A1 while the negative brushes are connected to terminal A2 of the machine. As indicated in the sketch, the brushes are positioned approximately midway under the poles. They make contact with coils that have little or no EMF induced in them, since their sides are situated between poles.Figure 1 Sketch of four-pole dc matchine The four excitation or field poles are usually joined in series and their ends brought out to terminals marked F1 and F2. They are connected such that they produce north and south poles alternately. The type of dc generator is characterized by the manner in which the field excitation is provided. In general, the method employed to connect the field and armature windings falls into the following groups (see Fig.2):Figure2 Field connections for dc generators:(a)separately excited generator;(b)self-excited,shunt generator;(c)series generator;(d)compound generator;short-shunt connection;(e)compound generator,long-shunt connection.The shunt field contains many turns of relatively fine wire and carries a comparatively small current, only a few percent of rated current. The series field winding, on the other hand, has few turns of heavy wire since it is in series with the armature and therefore carries the load current. Before discussing the dc generator terminal characteristics, let us examine the relationship between the generated voltage and excitation current of a generator on no load. The generated EMF is proportional to both the flux per pole and the speed at which the generator is driven, EG=kn. By holding the speed constant it can be shown the EG depends directly on the flux. To test this dependency on actual generators is not very practical, as it involves a magnetic flux measurement. The flux is produced by the ampere-turns of the field coils: in turn, the flux must depend on the amount of field current flowing since the number of turns on the field winding is constant. This relationship is not linear because of magnetic saturation after the field current reaches a certain value. The variation of EG versus the field current If may be shown by a curve known as the magnetization curve or open-circuit characteristic. For this a given generator is driven at a constant speed, is not delivering load current, and has its field winding separately excited. The value of EG appearing at the machine terminals is measured as If is progressively increased from zero to a value well above rated voltage of that machine. The resulting curve is shown is Fig.3. When Ij=0, that is, with the field circuit open circuited, a small voltage Et is measured, due to residual magnetism. As the field current increases, the generated EMF increases linearly up to the knee of the magnetization curve. Beyond this point, increasing the field current still further causes saturation of the magnetic structure to set in.Figure 3 Magnetization curve or open-circuit characteristic of a separately excited dc machine The means that a larger increase in field current is required to produce a given increase in voltage. Since the generated voltage EG is also directly proportional to the speed, a magnetization curve can be drawn for any other speed once the curve is determined. This merely requires an adjustment of all points on the curve according to where the quantities values at the various speeds.3. VOLTAGE REGULATION Let us next consider adding a load on generator. The terminal voltage will then decrease (because the armature winding ha resistance) unless some provision is made to keep it constant. A curve that shows the value of terminal voltage for various load currents is called the load or characteristic of the generator.Figure 4 (a) directs current it to urge the generator load characteristics; (b) circuit diagramFig.4 shows the external characteristic of a separately excited generator. The decrease in the terminal voltage is due mainly to the armature circuit resistance RA. In general, where Vt is the terminal voltage and IA is the armature current (or load current IL) supplied by the generator to the load. Another factor that contributes to the decrease in terminal voltage is the decrease in flux due to armature reaction. The armature current established an MMF that distorts the main flux, resulting in a weakened flux, especially in noninterpole machines. This effect is called armature reaction. As Fig.4 shows, the terminal voltage versus load current curve does not drop off linearly since the iron behaves nonlinear. Because armature reaction depends on the armature current it gives the curve its drooping characteristic.4. SHUNT OR SELF-EXCIITED GENRATORS A shunt generator has its shunt field winding connected in parallel with the armature so that the machine provides its own excitation, as indicated in Fig.5. The question arises whether the machine will generate a voltage and what determines the voltage. For voltage to “build up” as it is called, there must be some remanent magnetism in the field poles. Ordinarily, if the generator has been used previously, there will be some remanent magnetism. We have seen in Section 3 that if the field would be disconnected, there will be small voltage Ef generated due to this remanent magnetism, provided that the generator is driven at some speed. Connecting the field for self-excitation, this small voltage will be applied to the shunts field and drive a small current through the field circuit. If this resulting small current in the shunt field is of such a direction that it weakens the residual flux, the voltage remains near zero and the terminal voltage does not build up. In this situation the weak main pole flux opposes the residual flux.Figure 5 Shunt generator:(a)circuit;(b)load characteristic If the connection is such that the weak main pole flux aids the residual flux, the induced voltage increases rapidly to a large, constant value. The build-up process is readily seen to be cumulanve. That is, more voltage increases the field current, which in turn increases the voltage, and so on. The fact that this process terminates at a finite voltage is due to the nonlinear behavior of the magnctic circuit. In steady state the generated voltage is causes a field current to flow that is just sufficient to develop a flux required for the generated EMF that causes the field current to flow. The circuit carries only dc current, so that the field current depends only on the field circuit resistance, Rf. This may consist of the field circuit resistance Rf, the field current depends on the generated voltage in accordance with Ohms law. It should be evident that on a new machine or one that has lost its residual flux because of a long idle period, some magnetism must be created. This is usually done by connecting the field winding only to a separate dc source for a few seconds. This procedure is generally known as flashing the field.Series Generators As mentioned previously, the field winding of a series generator is in series with the armature. Since it carries the load current the series field winding consists of only a few turns of thick wire. At no load, the generated voltage is small due to residual field flux only. When a load is added, the flux increases, and so does the generated voltage. Fig.7 shows the load characteristic of a series generator driven at a certain speed. The dashed line indicates the generated EMF of the same machine with the armature open-circuited and the field separately excited. The difference between the two curves is simply the IR drop in the series field and armature winding, such thatwhere RS is the series field winding resistance. Figure 7 Series generator: (a)circuit diagram;(b)load characteristicsCompound Generators The compound generator has both a shunt and a series field winding, the latter winding wound on top of the shunt winding. Fig.8 shows the circuit diagram. The two windings are usually connected such that their ampere-turns act in the same direction. As such the generator is said to be cumulatively compounded. The shunt connection illustrated in Fig.8 is called a long shunt connection. If the shunt field winding is directly connected across the armature terminals, the connection is referred to as a short shunt. In practice the connection used is of little consequence, since the shunt field winding carries a small current compared to the full-load current. Furthermore, the number of turns on the series field winding. This implies it has a low resistance value and the corresponding voltage drop across it at full load is minimal. Curves in Fig.9 represents the terminal characteristic of the shunt field winding alone. By the addition of a small series field winding the drop in terminal voltage with increased loading is reduced as indicated. Such a generator is said to be undercompounded. By increasing the number of series turns, the no-load and full-load terminal voltage can be made equal; the generator is then said to be flatcompounded. If the number of series turns is more than necessary to compensate for the voltage drop, the generator is overcome pounded. In that case the full-load voltage is higher than the no-load voltage. Figure 9 Terminal characteristics of compound generators compared with that of the shunt generator The overcompounded generator may be used in instances where the load is at some distance from the generator. The voltage drops in the feeder lines are the compensated for with increased loading. Reversing the polarity of the series field in relation to the shunt field, the fields will oppose each other more and more as the load current increase. Such a generator is said to be differentially compounded. It is used in applications where feeder lines could occur approaching those of a short circuit. An example would be where feeder lines could break and short circuit the generator. The short-circuit current, however, is then limited to a “safe” value. The terminal characteristic for this type of generator is also shown in Fig.9. Compound generators are used more extensively than the other types because they may be designed to have a wide varity of terminal characteristics.As illustrated, the full-load terminal voltage can be maintained at the no-load value by the proper degree of compounding. Other methods of voltage control are the use of rheostats, for instance, in the field circuit. However, with changing loads it requires a constant adjustment of the field rheostat to maintain the voltage. A more useful arrangement, which is now common practice, is to use an automatic voltage regulator with the generator. In essence, the voltage regulator is a feedback control system. The generator output voltage is sensed and compared to a fixed reference voltage deviation from the reference voltage gives an error signal that is fed to a power amplifier. The power amplifier supplies the field excitation current. If the error signal is positive, for example, the output voltage is larger than desired and the amplifier will reduce its current drive. In doing so the error signal will be reduced to zero.TRANSFORMER1. INTRODUCTIONThe high-voltage transmission was need for the case electrical power is to be provided at considerable distance from a generating station. At some point this high voltage must be reduced, because ultimately is must supply a load. The transformer makes it possible for various parts of a power system to operate at different voltage levels. In this paper we discuss power transformer principles and applications.2. TOW-WINDING TRANSFORMERSA transformer in its simplest form consists of two stationary coils coupled by a mutual magnetic flux. The coils are said to be mutually coupled because they link a common flux.In power applications, laminated steel core transformers (to which this paper is restricted) are used. Transformers are efficient because the rotational losses normally associated with rotating machine are absent, so relatively little power is lost when transforming power from one voltage level to another. Typical efficiencies are in the range 92 to 99%, the higher values applying to the larger power transformers.The current flowing in the coil connected to the ac source is called the primary winding or simply the primary. It sets up the flux in the core, which varies periodically both in magnitude and direction. The flux links the second coil, called the secondary winding or simply secondary. The flux is changing; therefore, it induces a voltage in the secondary by electromagnetic induction in accordance with Lenzs law. Thus the primary receives its power from the source while the secondary supplies this power to the load. This action is known as transformer action.3. TRANSFORMER PRINCIPLESWhen a sinusoidal voltage Vp is applied to the primary with the secondary open-circuited, there will be no energy transfer. The impressed voltage causes a small current I to flow in the primary winding. This no-load current has two functions: (1) it produces the magnetic flux in the core, which varies sinusoidally between zero and m, where m is the maximum value of the core flux; and (2) it provides a component to account for the hysteresis and eddy current losses in the core. There combined losses are normally referred to as the core losses.The no-load current I is usually few percent of the rated full-load current of the transformer (about 2 to 5%). Since at no-load the primary winding acts as a large reactance due to the iron core, the no-load current will lag the primary voltage by nearly 90. It is readily seen that the current component Im= I0sin0, called the magnetizing current, is 90 in phase behind the primary voltage VP. It is this component that sets up the flux in the core; is therefore in phase with Im.The second component, Ie=I0sin0, is in phase with the primary voltage. It is the current component that supplies the core losses. The phasor sum of these two components represents the no-load current, orI0 = Im+ IeIt should be noted that the no-load current is distortes and nonsinusoidal. This is the result of the nonlinear behavior of the core material.If it is assumed that there are no other losses in the transformer, the induced voltage In the primary, Ep and that in the secondary, Es can be shown. Since the magnetic flux set up by the primary winding，there will be an induced EMF E in the secondary winding in accordance with Faradays law, namely, E=N/t. This same flux also links the primary itself, inducing in it an EMF, Ep. As discussed earlier, the induced voltage must lag the flux by 90, therefore, they are 180 out of phase with the applied voltage. Since no current flows in the secondary winding, Es=Vs. The no-load primary current I0 is small, a few percent of full-load current. Thus the voltage in the primary is small and Vp is nearly equal to Ep. The primary voltage and the resulting flux are sinusoidal; thus the induced quantities Ep and Es vary as a sine function. The average value of the induced voltage given byEavg = turnswhich is Faradays law applied to a finite time interval. It follows thatEavg = N = 4fNmwhich N is the number of turns on the winding. Form ac circuit theory, the effective or root-mean-square (rms) voltage for a sine wave is 1.11 times the average voltage; thusE = 4.44fNmSince the same flux links with the primary and secondary windings, the voltage per turn in each winding is the same. HenceEp = 4.44fNpmandEs = 4.44fNsmwhere Ep and Es are the number of turn on the primary and secondary windings, respectively. The ratio of primary to secondary induced voltage is called the transformation ratio. Denoting this ratio by a, it is seen thata = = Assume that the output power of a transformer equals its input power, not a bad sumption in practice considering the high efficiencies. What we really are saying is that we are dealing with an ideal transformer; that is, it has no losses. ThusPm = PoutorVpIp primary PF = VsIs secondary PFwhere PF is the power factor. For the above-stated assumption it means that the power factor on primary and secondary sides are equal; thereforeVpIp = VsIsfrom which is obtained = aIt shows that as an approximation the terminal voltage ratio equals the turns ratio. The primary and secondary current, on the other hand, are inversely related to the turns ratio. The turns ratio gives a measure of how much the secondary voltage is raised or lowered in relation to the primary voltage. To calculate the voltage regulation, we need more information.The ratio of the terminal voltage varies somewhat depending on the load and its power factor. In practice, the transformation ratio is obtained from the nameplate data, which list the primary and secondary voltage under full-load condition.When the secondary voltage Vs is reduced compared to the primary voltage,