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Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 15 (2011) 10891097Contents lists available at ScienceDirectRenewable and Sustainable Energy Reviewsjournal homepage: /locate/rserThe development and application practice of neglected tidal energy in ChinaLi-qun Liu, Chun-xia Liu, Zhi-yi Sun, Ru-cheng HanDepartment of Electronic and Information, Taiyuan University of Science & Technology, 030024 Taiyuan, Shanxi Province, Chinaa r t i c l ei n f oArticle history:Received 11 June 2010Accepted 10 November 2010Keywords:Tidal energyTidal power stationTidal stream turbineApplication practicea b s t r a c tAlong the eastcoasts of China are large bodies of water, China has abundant ocean energy resource, suchas the theory reserves of tidal resource is about 0.2billionkW, as early as 1958, Jizhou tidal power stationis the first tidal power station in China, which built in Shunde, Guangdong province, and more than 40smalltidalpowerstationsarebuiltineastcoastalregionin1960s,andthetotalinstalledcapacityisabout0.5MW. But it is a pity, the application and development of tidal energy has not been regarded by thegovernment and ordinary people due to the investment of power plant is big and the technology is notmature,sothereareonlyseveralsmalltidalpowerstationsinChina,andJiangxiatidalpowerstationwithan installed capacity of 3.2MW is the most famous. Fortunately, with the rapid development of Chineseeconomicandsociety,therenewableandsustainableenergyhavebeenregardedbyChinesegovernment,andtheapplicationanddevelopmentofwindenergyandsolarenergyisincreasinginanincrediblespeed,and more and more specialists began to regard the application of tidal energy, and they thought that tidalenergy can relieve the energy stress of east coastal region, and many layout of tidal energy exploitationis unfold in recently. This paper discusses the distribution zone and current developmental situation oftidal energy in China. Then, some application practice is described, such as tidal power station and tidalstream turbine. The policies and law of China central government and local governments are describedin the following paragraph. At the end, the developmental prospect of tidal energy in future China andthe development barriers and recommendations are introduced, respectively. 2010 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.Contents1.Introduction10892.Current energy situation in China 10913.Distribution of tidal energy in China 10914.Application practice of tidal energy in China10924.1.The early application of tidal energy10924.2.The conventional tidal power station10924.3.The novel tidal stream power plant10935.Tidal energy exploitation technologies10935.1.The exploitation technologies of conventional tidal power plant10935.2.The exploitation technologies of novel tidal power plant10946.Tidal energy policies in China10957.Developmental barriers and prospect of tidal energy in China 10958.Conclusion and recommendations 1096Acknowledgments1096References 10961. IntroductionCountry industrialization and reform of ordinary peoples liv-ing standard need more and more electricity power supply, stableCorresponding author at: College of Electronics Information Engineering,Taiyuan University of Science & Technology, 030024 Taiyuan, Shanxi Province,China. Tel.: +86 351 6111696.E-mail address: (C.-x. Liu).powersupplyisindispensabletoeverycountryatpresent,andelec-tricity power provided the development impetus of country. Theeconomic level and technology state is closely linked with electric-ity power supply. In a word, not enough energy supply will reducethe industrialization development speed and the improvement ofpeoples living standard. For an actual example, it is well knownthat China is the largest developing country in the world. With therapid development of economy, power energy demand in China israpid increase in all areas of social life, in despite of the annual totalinstalled capacity of electric power is about 0.1billionkW, but the1364-0321/$ see front matter 2010 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.doi:10.1016/j.rser.2010.11.0221090L.-q. Liu et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 15 (2011) 10891097inevitablepowercutinsummertimeelectricitypeakinmanyplacesof China, and the economic loss is big due to power cut, so thou-sandsofenterprisemustworkatnightinordertoavoidthedaytimeelectricity peak. Chinese government regards the construction ofpower plant and power grid, so thousands of power plants locatedin everywhere in current China in order to ensure the basic elec-tricity power supply. But it should be noticed that most of powerenergy come from the fossil fuel resource, and the share is about90% in China, and the coal account for about 70% in recent 30 years,and the inappropriate energy structure will block the sustainabledevelopment of country in future. Specially, the fossil fuel resourcein South China is scarce, so billions of tons coal is transported fromthe North provinces of China, i.e. Shanxi, Neimenggu. For exam-ple, according to Statistics data, the wastage of coal is more than2.74 billion tons in 2008, which ranks the first in the world. Andthe oil wastage is about 0.36 billion tons, which ranks the secondin the world. And natural gas wastage is about 80.7billionm31.The total amount of CO2emission is about 6 billion tons, whichranks the first or second in the world and the total emission isequal to USA 2,3. The total amount of SO2emission from 2000is more than 20 million tons, which ranks the first in the world4. The zoology is serious polluted due to the large scale exploita-tion and transportation and application of the fossil fuel resource.China has large number of polluted cities, and the investigationreport of World Banks environmental and economic experts pointout that the worlds worst air pollution in 20 cities, 10 are in China,such as Taiyuan, Beijing, Urumqi, Lanzhou, Chongqing, Jinan, Shi-jiazhuang, Qingdao, Guangzhou, and Shenyang. At the same time,the economic loss is more than 100 billion dollars per year dueto the air pollution and water pollution 5. At present, the pol-lution question not only occurs in big city, but also in small city.And with the large scale exploitation of fossil fuel resource, thereare more than 40 resource-exhausted cities in China, such as Fuxin,Daqing, Baiyin, Huaibei and Tongling and so on 6,7. The flintystatus must be immediate improved to achieve sustainable devel-opmentinfuture.Atpresent,Chinesecentralgovernmentandlocalgovernments have regarded the application and development oftherenewableandsustainableresources,suchaswindenergy,solarenergy and ocean energy. For example, the accumulative installedcapacityofwindpowerinChinain2008is12,210MW,whichranksthe fourth in the world 8. According to the news of CCTV, the totalinstalled capacity is about 18,000MW till June 2009. The outputof photovoltaic in 2009 is about 4000MW, which ranks the firstin the world 9,10. Furthermore, other renewable resources havebeen used in China, such as bioenergy, ocean energy, and geother-mal energy, etc. Certainly, different renewable energy has differentdevelopment status in China at present 1125.At the same time, the rural population accounted for more than60%, and the total amount is more than 0.8 billions, and withthe rapid development of Chinese society, there is more than 0.2billions rural population work in eastern coastal cities. But theremaining rural population is still more than 600 million, so theenergywastageisbig,andtheenergystructureismoreinappropri-atethancityduetothemainfuelsinChinesevillagearelumberandgrass,whichinducethatthousandsofhectaresforestaredestroyedandbillionsoftonsCO2isexhaustedandecologicaldamageoflocalplaces are big. In a word, the inappropriate energy structure in Chi-nese rural area must be rapid improved in order to improve theliving standard of rural population.Fortunately, China has abundant renewable resource, such assolar energy, wind energy and ocean energy, etc. According tothe data of Chinese weather bureau (CWB) and literature 20,the total solar energy resources are enormous in large soil area.Certainly, the irradiation is various in different zones. For exam-ple, the Tibet and southeast of the Qing-zang altiplano lie inthe highest irradiation zone of solar energy, and the annualhours of sunlight is more than 3200, and the annual irradiationamount is about 66008500MJ/m2. According to the data of Chi-nese weather bureau (CWB), the total wind energy resources areenormous in large soil area, the total amount of wind energyresources are 3.2billionkW, and of which can be effectivelyutilized is more than one billion kilowatt, and offshore windenergy is more than 750millionkW, and the onshore wind energyis about 250millionkW 2123. Furthermore, enormous oceanenergy exists in Chinese coastal places, such as tidal energy, oceancurrent energy, wave energy, ocean salinity energy and ocean ther-mal energy, and more broadly over the ocean energy, includingocean wind energy and solar energy on sea surface, and marinebiomass and so on. According to the statistical data, the theo-retical installed amount of tidal energy in coastal zone is about21.79millionkW, and the theoretical electrical energy per yearis about 62.4billionkWh, and the theoretical average power ofwave energy is about 12.85millionkW, and the theoretical aver-age power of tidal stream energy is 13.94millionkW, and the totalpower of ocean thermal energy is about 0.15billionkW, and theoceansalinityenergyisabout0.11billionkW,andtheoceancurrentenergy is about 14millionkW, certainly, the solar energy and windenergy of sea surface are enormous. So China has enormous oceanenergy resource, the application and development of ocean energywill take up important place in future energy structure 1125.Thousands years ago, human ancestors had already take advan-tage of tidal energy, such as Tide Mill have been used to grind flourand rice, and Tidal Mill in the world still exists till modern. Forexample, the tidal power is use to grind millet by Chinese coastalresidents, and Chinese Shandong province still preserved theancient tidal mill at present. Luoyang Bridge located in Quanzhou,which was installed in Luoyang River by the Chinese residents, andthe building stone is conveyed by using the tide power before 900years ago. Certainly, the tidal power has been used in other parts ofthe world, such as a Tide Mill in England is used to attract visitors,which located in Suffolk County and is established in 12th century.Then the immigrants bring Tide Mill to the Americas in the NewWorld, such as the French set up the first tide mill in the east coastof Canada in the Americas. At present, the application and devel-opment of tidal energy have been regarded by governments in thewholeworld,specially,thedevelopedcountrieshavebeenestablishmany actual tidal power stations and tidal stream power projects,such as La Rance tidal power plant in French, which is the largesttidal power plant in the world and have been completed about 40years, and the installed capacity is 240MW. Furthermore, manynew tidal stream power companies have been developed variousgeneratingequipments,suchasPulseGenerationLtd.,LunarEnergyLtd.andSMDHydrovisionLtd.ThetechnologyofUnitedKingdomisvery advanced in tidal stream power region. Tidal energy applica-tions in China have a long history, and some tidal power plantshave been established in last century, and China has enormoustidal stream resource at the same time. Furthermore, Chinas eastcoast is the most economically developed regions, but the fossilresource is scarce, so billions of tons coal and oil are transportedfrom Chinese Northern provinces. As a conclusion, the tidal energyand tidal stream energy must be regarded by local governments ofcoastal region. Specially, the tidal energy and tidal stream energyis mainly concentrated in Fujian and Zhejiang province, such asHangzhoubayistheworld-classtidalenergyregion.Withtherapiddevelopment of Chinese economy and society, the renewable andsustainable energy have been regarded by central government, sothe development of tidal power will be rapid growth in future.Thisarticlewilldiscussthecurrentsituationandoutlookoftidalenergy applications in China. Firstly, the current energy situationis described. Then, the tidal energy distribution and current devel-opment situation are described in following section. Then, actualapplicationsoftidalpowerstationandtidalstreamenergyinChinaL.-q. Liu et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 15 (2011) 108910971091Fig. 1. The total consumption and annual yield and import amount of oil in China2632.are introduced. The following section introduces the technologyand policies and barriers. Finally, the prospect of tidal energy inChina is forecasted in this paper.2. Current energy situation in ChinaTheGDP(grossdomesticproduct)ofChinain2009isabout4900billion dollars, which ranks the third in the whole world, and justbehind USA and Japan, and which will exceed Japanese GDP andrank the second in 2010. At the same time, China has a huge popu-lation. So the total energy wastage is huge, which ranks the secondin the world. According to statistics data, the coal wastage is morethan 2.74 billion tons in 2008, which ranks the first in the world,and the oil wastage in 2008 is about 0.36 billion tons, which ranksthe second in the world. And natural gas wastage in 2008 is about80.7billionm31. China became the import country of oil from1993, and the total domestic production of oil in 2009 is about0.19 billion tons, which cannot fill the need of country industri-alization and development, and the total import amount of oil isabout 0.219 billion tons, and the dependence on crude oil importsin 2009 reached about 52.5% 26,27. As shown in Fig. 1, the annualtotal consumption is growing form 2004, and the annual domesticyield is stable, and the import amount is rapid increasing. In past10 years, the annual average growth rate of oil is about 6.6%, whichis much higher than the growth rate of the world 33. For exam-ple, the growth rate of Chinese oil consumption in 2006 is 6.7%compare with the growth rate of the world is about 0.7% 34. AndChina becomes the biggest oil market 35. Fig. 2 shows that therates of external dependence and total consumption growth andannual consumption growth in China from 2004, and the externaldependence rate is rapid increasing from 40.4% to 52.5%. Thoughthe total consumption growth rate of oil in recent years in Chinabecame slow, but the total consumption amount in 2009 increasesabout40%comparewiththeamountin2004.Theenormousimportamountofoilhasaffectedtheenergysecurityofcountry,neverthe-less, the oil consumption accounts for about 20% in whole energystructure, and the natural gas consumption accounts for only about3% in whole energy structure. China has enormous coal resource,so the coal accounts for 70% in whole energy structure in past 30years. But an important problem is that the coal distribution is veryuneven. The enormous region locates in Northern and Westernof China, such as Shanxi, Neimenggu, and Xinjiang province. Thescarce region locates in Eastern of China, such as Fujian, Zhejiang,5952.%5051.%5448.%9246.%7644.%2040.%94139.%52133.%32124.%60118.%16112.%00100.%4.80%7.40%4.80%6.70%12.16%34.80%0%50%100%150%200920082007200620052004Yearexternal dependencerate from 2004 total consumptiongrowth rate from 2004annual consumptiongrowth rate from 2004Fig. 2. The rates of external dependence and total consumption growth and annualconsumption growth in China from 2004 2635.010002000300040002000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009YearMillion tons-10.00%-5.00%0.00%5.00%10.00%15.00%20.00%25.00%total domyieldannual growthrateFig. 3. The total domestic yield and annual growth rate of coal in past 10 years3641.Guangdong, Beijing, and Shanghai, etc. Billions of tons coal is trans-ported from Northern provinces to Eastern coastal region, whichincreases the transportable pressure of railway, specially, the coalsteam-electricplantcannotgainenoughcoalsupplyoncethestormis coming, and the industrial and residential electricity consump-tion will be affected by the storm. Certainly, the import amount ofcoal is small due to the domestic yield is big. But we must regard animportant problem, which is that China became an import countryof coal from 2009. As shown in Fig. 3, the total domestic outputis uninterrupted growth in past 10 years, and the total output in2009 is about three times in 2000, and the annual growth rate ismore than 5%, and the highest growth rate is more than 20%, whichtake place in 2003. But the import amount will increase in foreseefuture due to the transportation reason and price reason, and theprice of domestic coal is rapid increased, and the coal price per tonis changing form about 60 dollars to 100 dollars. As a conclusion,the energy consumption structure is very inappropriate to the sus-tainable development. The inappropriate state must be improved,which have brought some environmental damage, such as green-house,airpollution,waterpollutionandsoilpollution.Forexample,the total amount of CO2emission in China is about 6 billion tons,which ranks the first or second in the world 2,3. The total amountof SO2emission from 2000 is more than 20 million tons, whichranks the first in the world 4. A large number of greenhouse gasesand pollutants emission have affected the normal living of peopleand running of society. We have only one Earth, and we have onlyone homeland, and we love my hometown, so the things must beimproved.Certainly, the severe question has been realized by Chinese cen-tral government and local governments and normal people, andChinese government has established the Renewable Energy Law inFebruary 28, 2005, and the law have acted as the guarantee andspecial emphasis on the subject of renewable energy developmentin past 15 years. The Peoples Republic of China Renewable EnergyLaw Amendment (Draft) have been discussed and adopted by the11thNationalPeoplesCongressEnvironmentalandResourcesPro-tection Committee in July 22, 2009. August 28, 2009, the 11thNational Peoples Congress initial review “The Peoples Republic ofChinaRenewableEnergyLawAmendment(Draft)”at10thmeeting.In a word, Chinese development needs big energy, and the eco-nomic and society sustainable development expects the renewableenergy. So the development of renewable energy must be regardedby governments and ordinary people in future, or else, the sus-tainable development is bosh, and the industrialization of Chinais impossible. At the same time, the ordinary people have realizedthe essentiality of renewable energy application, and many volun-teersjoinedintheprotectionoftheenvironmentinordertoprotecttheirhomesandcommonhumanEarth.Theconcertedeffortofpeo-ple and government is certain to improve the inappropriate energystructure.3. Distribution of tidal energy in ChinaTidal phenomenon is a natural phenomenon due to the sunand the moon at different locations on the planet and the Earthsrotation in different gravity generated, and the joint action of the1092L.-q. Liu et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 15 (2011) 10891097Fig. 4. The tide types distributing in Chinese coastal areas.Ref. 42.centrifugalforcegeneratedtheEarthstidalforce,andthetidalforcecaused the regular and periodic fluctuation phenomenon of oceansurface, known as the tides. It is well known that China has abun-dant ocean energy resources in long coastline, and the coastlinelengthisabout18,000km,andexclusiveeconomicseaareaisabout3.5millionkm2, and the island amount is more than 6000, and thecoastline length of islands is about 14,000km. Thousands of yearsago, the tidal energy is used to grind the corn and salt by Chineseancestor and which is used to transport stone and goods. Theseeasy applications are used to improve the life quality of ordinarypeople until recently, such as Tidal Mill. At present, the modernapplication of tidal energy is power generation, and tens of smalltidalpowerplantsinChineseeastcoasthavebeenestablishedfrom1950s to 1970s, and the most famous tidal power plant in China isJiangxia tidal power plant, which is established in 1980, but thetotal capacity is 3.2MW. At the same time, China has enormoustidalenergyresourceineastcoast,andthetotaltheoreticalreservesis about 0.19billionkW, and the exploitable amount is more than20millionkW. So the exploitation of tidal energy resource in Chinais certain to rapid develop in foresee future 17.It is well known that the tide include some types, such as regu-larsemidiurnaltide,regulardiurnaltide,fitfulsemidiurnaltideandfitful diurnal tide. These tide types exist in Chinese coastal areas,and different areas have different tide types. As shown in Fig. 4,four tide types distributed from North to South, such as Shanghai,Ningbo,WenzhouandFuzhouhaveabundanttideenergyresource,and the best tidal energy located in Fujian and Zhejiang provinces.Table 1 shows the exploitable tidal energy resource of Chinesecoastal provinces, and the total area of harbour or estuary is morethan 8354km2, and the mean range is about 2m, and the biggesttidal range in China reach 8.93m, which located in Hangzhou bay.Andthetotalexploitableinstalledamountisabout21,000MW,andthetotalpoweramountisabout58billionkWh.Furthermore,someChinese river estuary occur tidal phenomenon, such as Changjiang,Zhujiang, Yalujiang, etc., so the river estuary area have abundanttidal energy resource, and the theory exploitable reserves of tidalenergy in Chinese river estuary is shown in Table 2. Draw a conclu-sion, China has abundant tidal energy resource in coastal region,and the tidal energy application will replace a lot of fossil fuelresource, and the development prospect is large in foresee future.4. Application practice of tidal energy in China4.1. The early application of tidal energyChinesepeopleusesthetidalenergysinceancienttimesinorderto decrease the labour intensity and improve the standard of liv-ing, and they have tried many kinds of method to extract the tidalpotential and kinetic energy, such as Tidal Mill, tidal wind turbineandtidalwaterelevator,etc.Forexample,TidalMillhavebeenusedto grind flour and rice, as early as a 1000 years ago, the tidal poweris use to grind millet by Chinas coastal residents, and in currentlyChinas Shandong province still preserved the ancient tidal mill.Morethan900yearsago,LuoyangBridgeinQuanzhouwasinstalledin Luoyang River by the local residents, and the tide power is usedto convey the building stone. Furthermore, the sea salt is yieldedby coastal residents from 1000 years ago, and the seawater of saltfield is brought by using tidal variation 1,4.4.2. The conventional tidal power stationAt present, the tidal energy is used to make electricity, and hun-dreds of tidal power stations are established in the whole world,which have bring abundant economic effects, such as the biggesttidal power station located in France and named La Rance tidalpower plant, which is established in 1960s and have been com-pleted about 40 years, the installed capacity is 240MW, manygreater tidal power plants are established and programmed in allovertheworld.Certainly,manytidalpowerplantshavebeenestab-lished in Chinese coastal provinces from the 1950s, there are 42Table 1Exploitable tidal energy resource of Chinese coastal provinces.ProvinceArea (km2)Mean range (m)Exploitable installed amount (10MW)Annual energy output (MMWh)Percent (%)Liaoning393.42.5758.716.12.78Shandong119.42.3613.982.920.5Zhejiang2584.34.2982522739.15Shanghai483.03.0470.422.83.93Fujian2859.44.20103328449Guangdong1294.51.3869.318.373.17Guangxi645.52.46278.071.39Total83542100580100Ref. 17.L.-q. Liu et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 15 (2011) 108910971093Table 2Theory exploitable reserves of tidal energy resource of Chinese major river estuary.RiverTidal energy per year (billion kWh/year)Long dike (km)Unit energy of long dike (MkWh/km)The weighted average tidal range (m)Yalujiang1.095.51982.74Changjiang7.8362172Qiangtangjiang5932.518155Minjiang1.252403Jinjiang1.52.56003Guangdong3.311.22954Zhujiang4.1251641Ref. 14.Note: Data in the table is the original design of planning water office of survey and design department of water resources and electric power Ministry in 1958.small tidal power plants which located in coastal location, but theinstalled capacity is very small, and total capacity is about 500kW,and the equipments of project and electromechanical are simple,and the economic benefit is bad, so the plants were abandoned,Shashantidalpowerplantisthelasttidalpowerstation.Atpresent,the most of running tidal power station is established in the 1970s,such as the most famous tidal power plant in China is Jiangxia tidalpower plant. Table 3 shows the main completed tidal power plantin China. So far, there are eight tidal power stations in China, whichare running, and the total installed capacity is more than 6000kW,and the annual energy output is 10,000MWh.As shown in Table 3, the history of application of tidal powerin China is long, and the completion time of tidal power plant inChina is closing to the completion time of tidal power plant indeveloped country, but the unit capacity is very small, and the totalcapacity is small. For example, the Shashan tidal power plant iscompleted in 1959, and the total installed capacity is only 40kW,which belong to the construction of large tidal power plant in the1950s. The Jiangxia tidal power plant is completed in 1980, andthe total installed capacity is only 3.2MW. In a word, the develop-mental history of conventional tidal power plant in China is early,but the developmental scale is small compare with the developedcountry, such as France.4.3. The novel tidal stream power plantThe conventional tidal power station need constructs a big damin order to store the seawater, the seawater will raise or descendwith the changing of tide, so a large soil will be flooded and eco-logical environment of reservoir will change, such as the damconstruction will affect the seawater temperature and sea currentsandsalinityandthegrowthofplanktonandfish,soitisnecessarytostudy the biological effects of dams. At present, every country andordinarypeopleregardtheenvironmentalprotection,theconstruc-tion of conventional tidal power station is very difficult. In order toapply the tidal power, a novel tidal stream turbine is proposed bysome scholar of developed country.The novel tidal stream power plant is regarded by Chinesegovernment, which is sustained by State Science and TechnologyStudyProjectsandCountry863program,andsomeuniversityhaveinvolved in the tidal stream power program, such as Harbin projectuniversity and Zhejiang university. And the original tidal streampower research began in 1983, which located in Jintang island,Zhoushan sea area, and some original designed and test work havebeen developed, such as power generation test, model experimentand the design of Carrier and anchor block and chain and float bar-relsandturbine.Atpresent,thefirsttidalstreampowerplantinAsiaiscompletedin2005,thetotalinstalledcapacityisabout40kW,andthe total investment is about 250,000 dollars. A new tidal streampower plant will be built in this sea area in future, and the totalinstalled capacity is about 120150kW 43,44.5. Tidal energy exploitation technologies5.1. The exploitation technologies of conventional tidal powerplantThe potential energy of tide is used by the conventional tidalpowerplant,whichgenerallyincludesthreeparts:dam,sluices,andpowerplants.Thetidalflowdirectionisconstantlychangingduetothe tidewater at the fluctuation, and the tidal power plant have dif-ferenttypes,suchasone-wayandsinglereservoirtidalpowerplantwhichcanmakeelectricityatebbtide,andbi-directionalandsinglereservoir tidal power plant which can make electricity at ebb tideand flood tide, and dual-reservoir and one-way tidal power plantwhich can continuous make electricity. The worlds first small tidalpowerstationwasbuiltin1912,whichlocatedinHusumGermany.And the worlds first tidal power plant is La Rance tidal powerstation in 1966, Brittany, the west coast of France, which has thebig economic value, and it uses bi-directional and single reservoirtype, and the total installed capacity is 240MW, and the annualgenerating capacity is 544 million degrees 45.The configuration of conventional tidal power plant includesthree types, which names as one-way and single reservoir, bi-directional and single reservoir and dual-reservoirs and one-way.(i) One-way and single reservoir tidal power plant can make elec-tricityatebbtidebyusingthewaterturbineset,andthetideisusedto make electricity in only one direction. So the efficiency of thistype is low; (ii) bi-directional and single reservoir tidal power sta-tion need to build a dam and hydroelectricgeneratingsetcanmakeelectricity at the flood tide and ebb tide by using the water turbineengines, generating sets is stopped only in the inside water level ofTable 3The completed tidal power plant in China.NameLocationInstalled amount (kW)Annual energy output (MWh)Begin and completion timeJiangxiaWenlin, Zhejiang320010,00019741985LiuheTaichang, Jiangshu15015019731976ShashanWenlin, Zhejiang409319581964YuepuXiangshan, Zhejiang30016019701972XingfuyangPingtan, Fujian128031521990BaishakouRushan, Shandong960100019711978GanzhutanShunde, Guangdong500010,30019711974Refs. 14,17,18.1094L.-q. Liu et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 15 (2011) 10891097reservoir is almost equal to the outside water level of reservoir. Sothe efficiency of this type is higher than the efficiency of one-wanand single reservoir tidal power plant; (iii) the dual-reservoirs andone-way tidal power station need build two adjoining reservoirs,namely, high-water reservoir and low-water reservoir. The high-water reservoir has a water intake sluice, when the water level ofhigh water level is lower than seawater level, and the tide waterflow to the reservoir. The low-water reservoir has a water releasegate, and the seawater flows from low-water reservoir to sea onlywhen the water level of low-water reservoir is higher than thewater level of sea. So it can continuous make electricity, and theoutput efficiency is higher than the output efficiency of one-wayand single reservoir type and bi-directional and single reservoirtype. Certainly, the investment is big.Water turbine power set can transform the tidal energy intoelectrical energy, which is the important equipment of tidal powerplant. It include hydro-generating unit, power transmission anddistribution equipment, lifting equipment, control room and lowerwater flow channels, etc. The hydro-generating unit has a goodcharacteristic of low head and large tidal flow, certainly, whichmust has a good characteristic of anti-corrosion and moistureand anti-fouling properties and insulation and sealing properties.Hydro-generating unit are generally three types of basic struc-tures: (i) vertical axis generator unit, that is, vertical axis turbineand generator connected perpendicular to the water surface. Thetyperequirebiggishworkshopandbiggerinvestment,whileintakepipes and tail pipes is very curving, biggish water energy losses,low efficiency; (ii) horizontal-axis unit is turbine and generatorshaft parallel to the water surface, the curvature of intake pipesand tail pipes is less than the curvature of vertical axis genera-tor unit, reduce in water energy losses, efficiency increase, butwhichneedtherelativelylongworkshop;(iii)throughflowturbine(straight-flow turbine), which include two types, named bulb-typeunitsandrim-generatorturbine.Bulb-typeunitssetallequipmentsin a concrete sealed bulb body, and the equipments include tur-bine, gearbox and generator sets, and the entire bulb body placedin water flow channels. The merit is that the efficiency is relativehigh, the curvature of water flow channel is small, and the waterenergy losses are small. The drawback is that installation is incon-venient, taking up more water channels. An actual example, the LaRancetidalpowerplantinFrenchusesthistype.Therim-generatorturbine install the stator of generator in the internal wall of waterflow channel around the turbine, and generator rotor is installed inthe water flow channel in a sealed body, taking up water channel issmallerthanthethroughflowturbinestructure.Anactualexample,Annapolis tidal power plant in Canada uses this type, unit capacityof 20MW 14,45.5.2. The exploitation technologies of novel tidal power plantThe surrounding environment of the traditional tidal powerplant will be impacted by the dam construction, and the dam willimpacts the ocean currents and water temperature and salinity,whichneedthehugeamountofinvestment,sothepotentialenergyapplicationoftidalenergyislimitedinfuture.Atthesametime,thetidehasabundantkineticenergy,andthekineticenergyapplicationof tidal energy has become a development hotspot at present, thatis the tidal stream energy is converted into electrical energy. Tidalstream power generation devices uses the tidal flow, which is fixedat the sea bed, and which is below the sea surface, certainly, whichdoes not impact the shipping and sea currents and water temper-ature and salinity of surrounding region, which does not need toflood the land, and the impact on people and fish is small, whichwill not hurt the fish due to the rotation speed of water turbineblade is slow.Fig. 5. Gorlov helical turbine.Ref. 46.Theprincipleoftidalstreampowergeneratorissimilarwiththeprinciple of wind power generator, which looks like an invertedwind driven generator. The different part is the density and speedand direction of wind and tide, so the blade configuration is dif-ferent. According to the data, the density of seawater is about 832times of the air density, and tidal stream speed is lower than thewind speed, so the blade of tidal stream power generation is shortand crude compare with the blades of wind power turbine is longandthin.Generally,thedirectionofwindisunstableandcontinuedchangingwiththechangingofweather,sothebladecontrolofwindpower turbine is difficult, and the wind turbine must be stopped ifthe wind speed is greater than the rated wind speed. The directionof tidal stream is relative stably, in generally, which need take intoaccount two tidal stream direction, flood tide and ebb tide. So theblade control of tidal stream power turbine is easier than the windturbine blade control.Certainly, the structure of tidal stream power turbine includestwo types power turbine, which are the horizontal axis and verticalaxistidalturbine,whichissimilarwiththestructureofwindpowerturbine. The vertical axis tidal stream power turbines are shown inFigs.5and6,therotationaxisdirectionoftidalturbinebladeisper-pendiculartotheseawaterflowdirection,suchastheGorlovhelicalturbine and Tidal Fence Davis Hydro Turbine. The horizontal axistidal stream power turbine is shown in Figs. 7 and 8, and the rota-Fig. 6. Tidal Fence Davis Hydro Turbine.Ref. 47.L.-q. Liu et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 15 (2011) 108910971095Fig. 7. Tidal Stream Turbine (TidEl).Ref. 48.Fig. 8. Open centre turbine.Ref. 49.tion axis direction of tidal turbine blade is parallel to the directionof seawater flow, such as the TidE1 tidal stream device and Opencentre turbine. And there are special types of tidal power turbine,and the rotation axis direction is perpendicular to the seawaterflow direction, but the running direction of blade is not rotary, andthe wing like hydroplane can move in the oncoming current by thelift or drag forces, such as Stingray tidal energy converter, which isshown in Fig. 9. At the same time, the sea surface have abundantsolar energy and wind energy, so the tidal energy can combinedwith other renewable resource in order to improve the reliabilityof electricity 4550.Fig. 9. Stingray tidal energy converter.Ref. 50.6. Tidal energy policies in ChinaTherenewableenergyhasbeenregardedbytheChinesegovern-ment in the last 10 years, and the Chinese Renewable Energy Lawhad been confirmed by the Chinese government in 28 February,2005. According to the 12th conference of 11th Standing Com-mittee of the National Peoples Congress, December 26, 2009, therevision decision of Peoples Republic of China renewable energysource law have been adopted. At present, the renewable resourcehave a rapid development velocity, such as the incredible growthrate of installed amount per year of wind power turbine is morethan 100% in past 4 years, and the yield of photovoltaic is morethan 4000MW in 2009. But a harsh reality is that Chinese oceanenergyhasalittledevelopmentoverthepast20years,andthetotalcumulative capacity and annual installed amount are very small.With the corresponding is that Chinese efficient development oftidal resource is more than 20millionkW. Certainly, in order toachieve sustainable development goal, the Chinese governmentand local governments formulates a series of policies and regu-lations to encourage tidal energy utilization. The correlative itemscontain:(I)Theresearchinvestmentoftidalenergymustincreasingin order to increase the proprietary intellectual property rights andcore technology development ability. (II) The fund of tidal powerplant is increasing due to private capital are unable to bear the highcostoftidalpowerplant.(III)Thecentralgovernmentandlocalgov-ernments give some allowances to the tidal power plant. (IV) Localgovernments have formulated the tidal energy exploitation plan,such as Fujian and Zhejiang. (V) Some university and institute havedeveloped the research of tidal energy. As mentioned above, theChinese government regards the development and exploitation oftidalenergy,andsomehortativepolicieshavebeenformulated,andthe development prospect of tidal resources is enormous in futureChina 51.7. Developmental barriers and prospect of tidal energy inChinaAt present, the development of Chinese tidal energy is ordinarycompare with the rapid development of wind and solar energyexploitation. The main reason is that there are some policy bar-rier and financial barrier and price barrier and technology barrier,which obstructs the development of tidal energy exploitation inChina.(I) Policy barrier, the hortative policy of renewable resource hasbeen established by the central government, but there arenot specific and detailed implementation rules of tidal energyapplication, such as the development scale, developmentvelocity, technical source and funding source. Furthermore,the dam and reservoir of conventional tidal power plant needflood large soil, which will impact the local ecological envi-ronment, and the construction must get government support.Theconstructionandserviceofnoveltidalstreampowerplantneed occupy navigation channel, which need the require gov-ernmentapproval.Sothespecificanddetailedimplementationrules must be formulated.(II) Financial barrier, the development of tidal energy need abun-dant money due to the price of tidal power plant is costly,and the private capital cannot suffer the cost. Furthermore,the most abundant region of tidal energy located in remoteislands and shores, and the financial capacity of local countygovernment is limited, so the great investment of tidal powerplant must get economic support of province government andcentral government.1096L.-q. Liu et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 15 (2011) 10891097Table 4Development plan and prospect of renewable resource power in China.ProjectInstalled capacity (10MW)Year2010202020302050Small hydropower5000750010,00020,000Biomass power generation5502000500010,000Wind power generation500300010,00040,000Photovoltaic generation30180100010,000Refs. 52,53.(III) Price barrier, the scale of tidal power plant in China is small,andtheelectricenergyproductionissmall,andtheserviceareais small, and the grid electrovalence is about 0.1dollar/kWh,which is more than the grid electrovalence of conventionalpower plant, such as the grid electrovalence of heat-engineplant in China is 0.03dollar/kWh at present. So the ordinarypeople would rather use the conventional power due to theprice. So the economic subsidy of government is must.(IV) Technology barrier, the technology of tidal energy in China isnot regarded by government and the experts and universityand graduate school at present, and there are little universityandinstituteconcerntheresearchfield,certainly,thetechnicalinvestment is not enough in that it is impossible to exploit thecore technology. The interrelated technology of tidal energyis not gave a course in Chinese university, and no interre-latedstudentgraduatefromtheresearchfield.Thepersonwithability of tidal energy field is not cultivated in company andcorporation.At present, Chinese central government have planned ambi-tious object of renewable resource power, as shown in Table 4, andthe total plan scale is very big. Specially, the actual developmentvelocity of renewable resource exploitation is more than the planvelocity,suchastheplancapacityofwindpowergenerationin2010is about 5500MW, but the actual accumulative installed capacitytill 2009 is about 25,800MW. Unfortunately, the development anduse of tidal energy has not been given due attention. Local Govern-mentlocatedinrichtidalenergyareasofdoesnothavethecapacityto carry out large-scale development, so the tidal energy exploita-tion in China has a long way to go, which need the strongly supportof central government, such as policy support, financial supportand technology support. Certainly, with the rapid development ofChinese economy, and central government and local governmentswillmoreandmoreregardtherenewableresourceapplication,andthe rich tidal resource areas located in the Chinese developed area,more and more power require need will compel local governmenttousethetidalenergy,sothetidalenergyexploitationinChinawillhas a bright future 52,53.8. Conclusion and recommendationsThe distributing and development actuality and actual appli-cation and future prospect of tidal energy in China are describedin this paper. Chinese economy development needs more andmore energy in future with the rapid development of Chinesesociety, and increasing energy pressure forced the Chinese Gov-ernment must find an alternative to traditional energy sourcesof renewable energy, so the renewable resource exploitation hasbeen regarded by central government and local government atpresent, such as wind and solar energy. But a harsh reality is tidalenergy development and utilization and did not get the atten-tion it deserved. The tidal energy resource is abundant in China,and the total amount can be efficient development is more than20millionkW, and distributing and rich area located in Chinesedeveloped area, so the tidal energy power will be regarded byordinary people and local governments and central governmentin foresee future.Chinese sustainable development need improve the inoppor-tune energy structure and regard the application of renewableresource. As noted above, the tidal energy exploitation does not beregarded at present, and some obvious barriers are existence, suchaspolicybarrier,economybarrier,technologybarrier,pricebarrier,sothedevelopmentoftidalenergyneedthestronglyfinancingsup-port and policy support of central and local government in orderto conquer the barriers. The following measures are especially rec-ommended in this regard:(I) The hortative policy of tidal energy exploitation should berefined by central government, such as developing tidalenergy can get certain subsidies.(II) Thegridelectrovalenceoftidalpowershouldbeimprovedbypower companies in order to encourage the development oftidal energy.(III) Thetaxshouldbereduction/exemptionbylocalgovernment,which will motivate the enthusiasm of investor.(IV) The interrelated research of tidal energy exploitation shouldbe strongly support, and the universities and institute shouldbe encouraged to research in tidal energy.(V) Should vigorously promote the domestic and internationalcooperation in order to improve the research level in tidalenergy.(VI) The student should be trained by universities, and the inter-related course should be set up in order to provide qualifiedpersonnel of renewable resource exploitation region.(VII) In order to possess core technology, the research investmentshould be improved.(VIII) The merit of tidal power should be publicized by central andlocal media in order to increase the environmental aware-ness.AcknowledgmentsThe authors would like to acknowledge the financing sup-port of Science Research and Development Program of Shanxiprovince(NO:201011026),andYouthScienceResearchFoundationof Shanxi province (NO: 2009021020).References1 National Bureau of Statistics of China. Statistics report of country econ-omyandsocietydevelopmentin2008.Seealso:http:/www.stats./tjgb/ndtjgb/qgndtjgb/t20090226 402540710.htm accessed 03.03.10.2 ChinaEnergyIndustryNet.Thelargestcountrieslistofcarbondioxideemissionin the world. See also: /Industrial/HTML/9096.htmlaccessed 3.03.10.3 CCTV.AreporteraskedtheMinistryofForeignAffairsdeniedthatChinas carbon dioxide emissions into the number one country. See also:/china/20070621/108885.shtml accessed 05.08.09.4 CCTV. Strongly promote the development of pollution reduction in transition.See also: /20090706/107332.shtml accessed 05.08.09.5 CCTV. The Great Divide of environmental protection: the loss due topollutioninChinaeachyear10%ofGDP.Seealso:http:/finance./20070319/100794.shtml accessed 05.08.09.6 SichuanNewsNetChengduBusinessNews.Deadandepigenetic,resource-exhausted cities look for the road of rejuvenation. See also:/fuxinshi/blog/item/da20425894c7bdd68204219daccessed 04.02.10.7 Sichuan News Net Chengdu Business News. 118 much-needed transfor-mation of resource-based cities. See also: /c/2006-03-14/07468437222s.shtml accessed 04.02.10.8 World Wind Energy Association. World Wind Energy Report 2008. Seealso:/upload/WorldWindEnergyReport2008 s.pdfaccessed 04.02.10.L.-q. Liu et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 15 (2011) 1089109710979 New Material Online. 2004-2009 China solar wafer production. See also:/materials/class/books show.php?books id=759accessed 04.02.10.10 Zhong Y. PV market to accelerate the commercialization process. Seealso: /2010/1-27/502839372251210.html accessed04.02.10.11 Zhai X, Liu K, Han Q. Ne
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