教师用书01 句子写作技巧.doc

第1单元 句子写作技巧 Unit 1 Sentence Writing Skills第1单元 句子写作技巧Unit 1 Sentence Writing Skills1.1 教学要点通过本单元的学习，要求学生掌握以下两方面的知识和技巧：1. 如何写出语法正确的英语句子，包括：(1) 一个完整的英语句子一般需要哪些成份？(2) 英语有哪几种基本句型？(3) 如何扩展一个句子？(4) 句子可以分成哪几种类型？(5) 一个语法正确的句子有哪些要素？2. 如何写出具有表现力的句子，包括：(1) 什么叫句子的并列？并列句有哪几种形式？(2) 什么叫句子的从属？从属关系有哪几种类型？(3) 通过哪些技巧可以达到句子的多样性？(4) 什么叫平行结构？获得句子平行的方法有哪些？在掌握以上知识和技巧的前提下，学会写出语法正确并富有表现力的英语句子。1.2 热身训练开场白：汉语词汇一般没有词性标记，动词也没有时态和体态标记，因此中国学生学习英语时最大的困难之一就是分清英语单词的词性和动词的形态，以及各种词形在句子中的使用方法。活动：让学生看下面四个句子，分析它们是否正确：（1） That umbrella is my. （2） The create was wonderful.（3） Yesterday, I receive a letter from my best friend.（4） All the students leaving for the classroom. 讲解：（1）中的my是形容词性物主代词，不能作表语，应该用名词性物主代词mine。（2）中的create是动词，不能作主语，应该使用其名词形式creation。（3）中的动词receive应该使用过去式received，与状语Yesterday一致。（4）中的leaving是动词的分词形式，不能作谓语，应该在其前面加上助动词are/were，或者将leaving改为left。学习英语写作，首先要学会如何写出语法正确的句子，这样才能正确表达自己的思想，达到与读者交流的目的。因此，我们的作文课首先要讨论如何写出语法正确的句子。1.3 课堂组织本单元内容非常丰富，可供四至六个学时使用。例如，前两个学时讲解如何写出语法正确的英语句子，中间两个学时讲解如何写出具有表现力的句子，最后两个学时补充一些书本外的内容（见“技巧扩展”）。讲解可以采用提问的方式，由学生来回答问题，以督促学生课前预习和课堂思考的习惯。课文讲解也可以和课后练习结合起来。课后各练习的针对性如下：练习1： 检测学生对英语句子结构的敏感性。练习2： 检测学生对英语基本句型和句子的主语、谓语的掌握程度。练习3： 检测学生对英语句子各要素的敏感性。练习4： 检测学生对英语句子类型的掌握程度。练习5： 检查学生对英语句子界限的敏感性。练习6： 训练学生的句子合并能力。练习7： 训练学生写平行句的能力。1.4 知识/技巧扩展根据学生的语言水平，酌情补充以下内容，使其写出的句子具有更强的表现力。1.4.1 句子的并列1. 英语中的并列连词及其表示的关系有以下七种：独立分句1并列连词独立分句 2关 系Nora wants to buy a new car, andshe has enough money.增加关系Nora wants to buy a new car, butshe doesnt have enough money.转折关系Nora wants to buy a new car, forthe old car has broken down.结果原因关系Nora wants to buy a new car, orshe will have to take the bus.选择关系Nora wants to buy a new car, soshe has been saving money.原因结果关系Nora wants to buy a new car, yetshe will probably buy a used car.对照关系Nora doesnt wants to buy a new car, nordoes she have enough money.否定的增加关系2. 英语中常见的连接副词有以下几种：意义举 例结果therefore, consequently, as a result, of course让步nevertheless, at any rate, after all, of course同位for example, foe instance, that is, in other words增加moreover, furthermore, also, in addition, likewise, besides时间meanwhile, in the meantime, at the same time总结thus, in conclusion, then, in a word, in short增强further, in particular, indeed, in fact对照however, instead, on the contrary, on the other hand, in contrast, rather3. 注意事项（1）在使用并列关系时要注意各并列成分间的逻辑性。逻辑上缺乏联系的分句不能构成并列句。如：Illogical: Alice Adams has published four novels, and she lives in New York.Revised: Alice Adams, who lives in New York, has published four novels.Revised: Alice Adams, from New York, has published four novels.Revised: Alice Adams, a San Francisco writer, has published four novels. （2）注意不要过度使用并列句，否则会造成意义上的含糊和结构上的生硬、单调。Overused: I studied hard for the next exam, and I got Bill to help me, but I still did poorly, but I did much better than on the previous (前一次的) exam. Revised: With some help form Bill, I studied hard for the next exam; and even though I still did poorly, I did much better than on the previous exam. 1.4.2 句子的从属1.4.2.1 常见的引导状语从句的从属连词及其表示的意义有：意义举 例让步though, although, even if, even when辨别that, when, who时间before, when, after, while, as , as soon as, till, until原因since, because, as,条件if, unless, provided, in case, as long as目的so that, in order that结果so that方式how, however地点where, wherever1.4.2.2 注意事项（1）区别重要信息和次要信息，把重要信息放在主句中，次要信息放在从句中。主次关系颠倒，句子表达的意思的重心就全变了。比较下列句子：She did not eat because she was angry. She was angry because she did not eat.（2）要注意使用恰当的从属连词，清楚地表明主从分句之间的关系：Illogical: Because he was tired and thirsty, he did not give up his hope of finding his lost son. Revised: Although he was tired and thirsty, he did not give up his hope of finding his lost son. （3）不能过多使用从属关系，因为太多的从属会使句子意义模糊，表达混乱。如果在一个句子中出现两个以上的从属连词或者关系代词，就要特别注意意义表达是否清楚。Overused: I have never before known a man like John, my friend who is always ready to help anybody who is in trouble that involves finances.Revised: I have never before known a man like my friend John, who is always ready to help anybody in financial trouble.1.4.3 句子的统一性句子的统一性（unity）（又称单一性）指的是一个句子只能表达一个思想，而那些关系不密切的内容不应放在同一句内。要使我们所写的每一个句子都能保持统一性，并不是指我们一定要写短句，相反，长而复杂的句子只要各个成分和修饰语之间关系紧密，并且意思完整、统一，照样符合句子统一性原则。请观察下面两个句子：(1) Born in America, Ernest Hemingway won a Nobel Prize for Literature (诺贝尔文学奖) in 1954.(2) The journalist who has just returned from the remote mountain village is now busy writing a report on the backwardness (落后状况) and poverty of that area.显然，句子（1）要比句子（2）看起来要简单得多，但句子（1）却不符合统一性原则，因为Born in America与Ernest Hemingway won a Nobel Prize for Literature in 1954之间缺乏必要的逻辑统一关系。相反，句子（2）虽然包含有主从复合句，但却表达了单一的主题思想，因此符合句子统一性原则。那么如何确保句子的统一性呢？1. 把相关的思想内容放在一个句子中只有那些逻辑上有关联的信息才能放在一个句子里。Unrelated: Yesterday Tom hurt his foot, and he could not find his new bicycle.Related: Accident happening all day yesterday, Tom not only hurt his foot but also lost his new bicycle.2. 去掉冗余的细节如果一个句子太长或负载太重，就该把某些重要的细节放到不同的句子中表达，而次要的细节应该删去，否则就会影响中心内容的表达，给人以喧宾夺主之感。Awkward: In 1788, when Andrew Jackson, then a young man of twenty-one years who had been living in the Carolinas, came to Tennessee, a place of unknown opportunities, to serve as a lawyer, he had the qualifications (资力) that would make him equal to (胜任) this job.Revised: In 1788, when Andrew Jackson came to Tennessee as the lawyer, he had the necessary qualifications for the job.3. 避免结构混乱首先，不要在句子中途改变句法结构。例如：Mixed: For most college graduates who have passed the job interview test will stand great chances to be employed. Revised: For most college graduates who have passed the job interview test, their chances of being employed are great. Revised: Most college graduates who have passed the job interview test will stand great chances to be employed. 其次，不要使用诸如is when, is where, is because 之类的结构。例如：Mixed:The reason that I missed the exam is because my bicycle broke down.Revised:The reason that I missed the exam is that my bicycle broke down.Revised:I missed the exam because my bicycle broke down.1.4.4 句子的连贯性所谓句子的连贯性(coherence)指句子前后自然、顺畅，表达的意思无任何歧义。要确保句子的连贯性，我们应该注意以下几点：1. 句子的主语与谓语在意义上必须有关联Incoherent: A comparison between the city and the village would be a good place to live.Improved: A town that can offer the best qualities of both city and village is a good place to live.2. 正确使用比较级使用形容词或副词的比较级时，比较要具备完整性和逻辑性，即比较的对象要明确；比较的对象具有可比性；同类事物比较用“other”或“any other”，异类比较用“any”；避免缺乏比较项的比较句。如：Unclear:They worry more about money than their child.Clear: They worry more about money than their child does.Clear: They worry more about money than about their child.3. 修饰词的目标明确修饰语、限定词应该紧靠它们所修饰或限定的词语，以免造成误解。如：Misplaced:The student returned the book to the library with an ink mark.Revised:The student returned the book with an ink mark to the library.Misplaced:The student Mr. Smith criticized angrily left the room.Revised:The student Mr. Smith angrily criticized left the room.Revised:The student Mr. Smith criticized left the room angrily.4. 避免分词悬垂所谓悬垂，就是说修饰词不能在逻辑上修饰句子中要修饰的短语或分句。例如：Dangling: To get up early, the clock was set at six.Revised: To get up early, he set the clock at six.Dangling: Running down the street, an old friend came across.Revised: Running down the street, he came across an old friend.1.4.5 句子的强调句子的强调(emphasis)是指借助语法手段或修辞手段，使句中相对重要的信息得以突显出来。句子强调可以将读者的注意力吸引到句子中相对重要的思想内容，把作者的主要意思传递给读者。要达到此效果，可以采取下面几种不同的方法：1. 把重要思想的内容安排在重要的位置句子的开头通常可以是重要位置，但是在很多情况下，整句最重要的位置往往是句子的末尾，被称作“句末重心”(end weight)或“句子焦点”(end focus)，所以人们常把最重要的内容放在最后，次重要的内容放在句首，而最不重要的内容放则在句子中间。例如，Unemphatic:His lecture is most lively and exciting, I think.Emphatic: His lecture, I think, is most lively and exciting.Unemphatic:There was a strong earthquake that wiped out the village.Emphatic: A strong earthquake wiped out the village.2. 使用圆周句圆周句(periodic sentence)把由主谓结构构成的、表达句子主要思想的内容一直延缓到句子末尾，通常能起到强调和结论的作用，突出重点。例如，LooseBeethoven managed to become one of the most successful musicians of all time although he met with a lot of difficulties.Periodic:Although he met with a lot of difficulties, Beethoven managed to become one of the most successful musicians of all time. 3. 使用“渐进式”顺序“渐进式”顺序(climactic order)就是将一个句子要表达的思想内容按最不重要、次重要、最重要的顺序排列。这种顺序可以增加句子的气势，特别有具有说服力和鼓动性，尤其适用于演讲。例如，Emphatic: The people of the city were robbed, starved and killed.Emphatic: Some books are to be tasted, others to be swallowed, and some few to be chewed and digested. Francis Bacon4. 使用主动语态一般情况下，主动语态往往比被动语态更有力度，因为其主语是动作的发出者而不是动作的承受者。例如，Unemphatic:Short stories for children used to be written by my father.Emphatic: My father used to write short stories for children.但是，被动语态的使用也有其道理的。究竟使用什么语态，这要取决于具体的语境。无论是被动语态还是主动语态，只要使用得体，都能起到加强语气的作用。而上面的句子显然使用主动语态比较合适。5. 重复重点词语刻意并且有目的地重复某些词语能够引起读者的关注，使他们意识到句子的重要内容之所在。例如：He is an impatient man and keeps complaining: he complains about the weather, he complains about heavy traffic, he complains about high prices, and he even complains about his meals.该例句连续用了四个complain，读者由此可知这个人是多么的急燥和没有耐心，预期陡然增强。6. 使用平衡结构平衡结构 (balanced structure) 就是将相反或相似的思想内容放到结构平行的并列句中，使相反或相似的思想得到强调，提高说服力。英语中的许多谚语和经典名句通常都是使用平行结构，句子琅琅上口，容易记忆。例如：United, we stand; divided, we fall. Abraham LincolnSpeech is silver; silence is gold.7. 改变句子长度在连续的语句中，若干个长句之后突然出现一个短句或者若干个短句后面突然出现一个长句，这种长句和短句的交替使用，能够起到加强语气的作用，可以引起读者的注意。例如：In the last two decades (十年) there has occurred a series of changes in American life, the extent, durability (持久性), and significance of which no one has yet measured. No one can.Irving Howe8. 使用断裂句断裂句 (cleft sentence) 将一个句子分成两部分，每部分都有自己的谓语动词，其句型是：It + be + 强调部分 + that/who 分句。有些书上也称其为强调句型。如：It was John who shot the thief on Tuesday night.It was on Tuesday night that John shot the thief.It was the thief that John shot on Tuesday night.9. 使用倒装句英语句子通常是按主语+谓语的顺序排列的，但有时候为了突出某些重要思想，或与前面的句子保持连续性，可以将主谓结构颠倒过来。倒装（inversion）分为两种：完全倒装 (full inversion)和部分倒装 (partial inversion)，前者将整个谓语提到主语前面，后者只将谓语的一部分提前。例如：Full inversion:There stands a tall tree on the top of the mountain.Here comes the bus.On the wall hangs the map of China.Partial inversion:Never has he been to the Great Wall.Only then did I realize he was a liar.Young as he is, he can lift the heavy box.1.4.6 句子的多样性据统计，英语通俗杂志的文章平均每句长十五到二十个词，文学性或学术性文章平均每句长二十到三十个词，而我们英语作文的句子平均长度大约在十到二十个词之间。因此，当我们发现我们写的句子几乎每句都在二十个词左右时，就有必要插入几句短句（五至十五个词左右）或长句（三十至五十个词），这是实现句子多样化最有效的策略之一，因为无论短句还是长句，都有其自身的修辞效果。当然，变换句子的花样本身并不是最终目的。如果不顾句子之间的相互关系，每句都变化长度、结构、开头和结尾等，那不仅没有达到变化句子的目的，反而显得矫揉造作，破坏了文章整体的连贯性。所以，选择什么样的句子长度和句子类型，要依赖于文章的内容和该句与前后句子间的关系而定。1.4.7 句子的结构平行 写平行句时需要注意以下几点：1 避免某些词的省略，以免意义含糊，引起误解Ambiguous:Michael seemed preoccupied (全神贯注的) while shaving and even kissing his wife.Clear:Michael seemed preoccupied while shaving and even while kissing his wife.2 避免不必要的重复，以免引起累赘Unnecessary:She kept herself busy by taking a pie, by reading a magazine, and by writing a letter. Revised:She kept herself busy by taking a pie, reading a magazine, and writing a letter.3 避免不平行的比较或对照Nonparallel:The new library was larger than the old one, more beautiful than any other building on campus, and it cost too much money. Parallel:The new library was larger than the old one, more beautiful than any other buildings on campus, and more expensive to build than anyone had imagined.4 避免关系代词的错误使用Faulty:The peach tree, with its sugary (含糖的) fruit and which was not known in the Middle Ages, seems to have developed from the almond (杏树). Parallel:The peach tree, which has a sugary fruit and which was not known in the Middle Ages, seems to have developed from the almond.1.5 附加练习1. Put a before a grammatically correct sentence and a before a sentence that has problems in agreement, consistency and completeness. If the sentence is problematic, tell why it is so and then correct the mistake.(1) The doctor gave the pills to three other patients and me. (2) Dont touch the freshly painted walls with your hands before theyre dry. (3) His parents have started to learn English since they retired.(4) The young man finally had to marry the girl, but she was not liked by him. (5) Neither the students nor the teacher like the textbook. (6) If I were rich and if my father was still alive, my life would be different. (7) When the doctors in Los Angeles went on strike in 1976, the death rate drops 18 percent. (8) The group of students argued as to whether it should go out on an outing. (9) One has to expect criticism when you succeed.(10) Matt told his brother that he needed to lose some weight.a) b) Ambiguous pronoun referenceRevised: Dont touch the freshly painted walls before theyre dry.c) d) A shift from active to passive voiceRevised: The young man finally had to marry the girl, but he did not like her.e) Disagreement between the subject and the verbRevised: Neither the students nor the teacher likes the textbook.f) A shift from subjunctive to indicative moodRevised: If I were rich and if my father were still alive, my life would be different.g) A shift from the past to the present tenseRevised: When the doctors in Los Angeles went on strike in 1976, the death rate dropped 18 percent.h) Disagreement between the pronoun and its antecedentRevised: The group of students argued as to whether they should go out on an outing.i) A shift from the third to the second personRevised: One has to expect criticism when he or she succeeds.j) 2. Revise the following sentences to make them unified and coherent: (1) I asked him the direction to the park, and he could not tell me. (2) While he is drunk, he appears harmless. (3) I read the book hurriedly, the latter part of which did not interest me at all. (4) The road was built only two years ago and now it is full of holes. (5) My aunt enjoys playing with children, but she is very old.(6) Upon entering the room, no one was seen.(7) He struck him as he passed him.(8) I saw a beautiful bird in a cage, which I bought.(9) This is a good book, and which I advise you to read.(10) He said he would come if he could, but that we didnt have to wait for him.3. Revise the following sentences to make them more emphatic:(1) A man was killed by a car while crossing the street yesterday.(2) The book was expensive. So I could not buy it.(3) King Arthur knew that he was dying, and called his son before him.(4) What people often talk about nowadays is the growing crime rate.(5) He was a poet, a scholar, a socialist and a man of science.(6) It was cold yesterday, but it is colder today.(7) Many a man has sacrificed his life for wealth; it is true.(8) It is a great privilege to assemble and meet here.(9) It was once believed that men reach their decisions by reasoning and that decisions are made by women through intuition.(10) She decided to take English lessons though she was very busy.4. Revise the following sentences to make the elements parallel.(1) The hotel clerk knew that we had paid our bill and we had our receipt.(2) My uncle spoke with warmth and in a humorous way.(3) Several people were caught in the snowstorm but not being seriously hurt.(4) We met an American who had lived in China, but he knew little about his own country.(5) The boy who came to our house asked to be fed and where he could be clothed.5. Compose a new sentence from the following groups of units by imitating the original pattern sentence in italics.(1) The small, dull-eyed child, tired and hungry, clutched (紧握) her bread.The train approached the crowd.The train was handsome.The train was black.The train was old.But the train was well-preserved (保养好的).The crowd was cheering.(2) What you do about this problem is entirely up to you.Something is very insulting.He said something to his girlfriend.(3) Joe knew that Bill was the best person for the job.William thought something.The team was the best.The team was in the league(竞赛联合会).(4) The speech in which the department head explained her position satisfied all the teachers.The car delighted the children.The car was beautiful.The queen rode in the car.(5) Although we consider the rules unfair, we will not protest it.George did not win the race.George was the fastest runner.The runner was in the race.1.6 练习参考答案1.6.1 学生用书练习参考答案1. (1) The Summer Palace looks especially beautiful in the early morning.(2) He hates to smoke before other people.(3) When do you want to see the film?(4) The boy should not have stayed so late.(5) Sally finished writing the paper but forgot to bring it to class.2. (1) There is a hole in the bottom of the sea. S V(2) Dogs and cats are sometimes the best of friends. S V SC(3) I find the film interesting. S V DO OC(4) I teach him English composition. S V IO DO(5) The noodles smell wonderful. S V SC3.(1) Disagreement between the subject and the verbRevised: One of the politicians was taken to the prison.(2) A sentence fragment with no subject and verbRevised: The tests, especially the essay questions, were easy. We felt confident that we had done well.(3) Ambiguous pronoun referenceRevised: I never buy fresh vegetables at that store because the owners charge too much.(4) (5) Disagreement between the subject and the verbRevised: There are many secretaries who do their bosses jobs as well as their own.(6) (7) Disagreement between the subject and the verbRevised: Either you or he has to leave.(8) Disagreement between the subject and the verbRevised: Economics is difficult to understand.(9) Disagreement between the pronoun and its antecedentRevised: Max moved after his apartment was robbed for the sixth time.(10) Wrong case of the pronounRevised: You and he are different ages, bur you have several thing