批判性思维PPT课件.ppt

Welcome 1 2 课程目标 本课程主要介绍批判思维的基本知识 同时进行批判思维方法和论辩训练 批判思维是一种基于理性和逻辑的思维模式 它为人们进行理性思考提供了基本的平台和方法 批判思维要求思考者在分析问题的同时 也要反思自己的思维过程 批判思维能力不仅是从事学术研究的基本条件 也是人们从事各类工作应具备的基本素质 论辩是阐明真理 揭穿谬误的语言活动 掌握论辩方法有助于分清现实生活中特定问题的是非 曲直 真伪 优劣 是现代社会公民参政必备的素质之一 3 Studywithoutreflectionisawasteoftime reflectionwithoutstudyisdangerous Confucius Iamnotaparrot PART1 了解我们的思维 4 WhoamI 自然思维 按照习惯或流行的观念来思考 通常是将自己固有的观念或信念来套所遇到的问题或现象 合者则肯定或接受 不合者则否定或拒绝 批判思维 对所遇到的问题或现象先要存疑 再运用逻辑推论和相关充足理由来分析问题和现象 得出肯定或否定的结论 一 自然思维与批判性思维 5 主体意识的形成过程 幼儿通过举手投足可以控制镜中的自我 这给幼儿带来了极大的快感 他只能通过镜中的自我来认识自己 在这个过程中 幼儿逐渐形成了自身的主体意识 6 主体意识的形成过程 儿童在3岁以后 身边各色人物的动作 姿势 说话 使他进入一个早已存在的语言能指系统 在这个系统中找到各自的位置 我 你 他 男他 女她 父亲 母亲 工人 农民 老师 学生 等等 这就是所谓的 象征界 即语言和社会文化的领域 7 Canyoufindsomethingwrong Thescientistsoftenplaceworkabovetheirpersonallives oftenneglecttheirhusbands 8 CriticalThinkingisthegeneraltermgiventoawiderangeofcognitiveandintellectualskillsneededto Effectivelyidentify analyze andevaluatearguments Discoverandovercomepersonalprejudicesandbiases Formulateandpresentconvincingreasonsinsupportofconclusions Makereasonable intelligentdecisionsaboutwhattobelieveandwhattodo 9 ProblemSolvingDecisionMaking CriticalThinking Right Left 10 二 批判思维的用处 1 批判思维帮助澄清思想要素2 批判思维帮助扩展你的想法3 批判思维帮助获得学术成就 11 批判思维帮助澄清思想的要素 endsandobjectives thestatusandwordingofquestions thesourcesofinformationandfact themethodandqualityofinformationcollection themodeofjudgmentandreasoningused theconceptsthatmakethatreasoningpossible theassumptionsthatunderlieconceptsinuse theimplicationsthatfollowfromtheiruse andthepointofvieworframeofreferencewithinwhichreasoningtakesplace 12 一个对比不同假设的实例 PersonOne Situation Amanislyinginthegutter Assumption Onlybumslieingutters Inference Thatman sabum PersonTwo Situation Amanislyinginthegutter Assumption Anyonelyinginthegutterisinneedofhelp Inference Thatmanisinneedofhelp 13 批判思维帮助扩展你的想法 14 InScience CriticalThinkingisusedwhenyou Observeproblem phenomenon conceiveideasDevelopahypothesisMakepredictions FormulateexperimentsTestPredictions Carryoutexperiments analyzedataDrawconclusionsfromresults modifyhypothesisModifyasneededanddoagain RejectorconfirmhypothesisTheScientificMethoditselfinvolvescriticalthinkingVITALforascientist ImpressiveforasciencestudentNeedtohavetimetoreadandthink 15 Criticalthinkingvs creativethinking Criticalandcreativethinkingarethetwomostbasicthinkingskills Criticalthinkingisamatterofthinkingclearlyandrationally Creativityconsistsincomingupwithnewandrelevantideas Tobeagoodandeffectivethinker bothkindsofthinkingskillsareneeded Creativitymightbedividedintotwokinds Oneiscognitivecreativitythatisinvolvedinsolvingproblems Theotherisaestheticcreativityrelatingtoartisticcreation Thisisofcoursenotasharpdistinction butcriticalthinkingplaysamoreimportantroleintheformer 16 Criticalheuristicsforcreativethinking Heuristic 1 FeaturelistHeuristic 2 AnalogyHeuristic 3 SearchHeuristic 4 PerspectiveshiftHeuristic 5 ComparationHeuristic 6 ApplyinganoldtheorytoanewdomainHeuristic 7 ComingupwithnewevidencesupportingorrefutingatheoryHeuristic 8 Improvingthescope accuracyorthepredictivepowerofanoldtheory 17 CTenhancesacademicachievement Analyticalskillsincludeboththeabilitytousegoodreasoninginanalyzingasituationandalsotheabilitytoproblemsolve Analyticalskillsalsoincludeseeingtheargumentsonbothsidesofanissue evenifyoudon tagreewiththem andbeingabletoanalyzethemeritsofeachargument CriticalandanalyticalskillsareimportantpartsofGREandGMAT TheGREAnalyticalWritingsectionconsistsoftwodistinctwritingtasks PresentYourPerspectiveonanIssue AnalyzeanArgument TheGMATincludes3sections VerbalReasoning Quantitative andAnalyticalWritingAssessment 18 Asanundergraduateyoushould Evaluatehowfarmaterialsareappropriate andup to date Evaluatehowfartheevidenceorexamplesusedinmaterialsreallyprovesthepointthattheauthorclaims Weighupopinions argumentsorsolutionsagainstappropriatecriteria Thinkalineofreasoningthroughtoitslogicalconclusion Checkforhiddenbiasorhiddenassumptions Checkwhethertheevidenceandargumentreallysupporttheconclusions 19 Acaseforanalyticalskills Supposingyouhaveraindataforyourtownforthepastthirtyyears giventoyouatrandom withnocomments Youcanorganizethedatachronologically thendrawagraphtodemonstratethedataandthen byextendingthegraphalongitsclosestfittingcurve youcanmakereasonablepredictionsabouttheextentofrainnextyear assumingthatallotherfactorsremainsteady 20 三 批判思维与非批判思维的特点比较 21 四 Mastercriticalthinkingskills Askillisthelearnedcapacitytocarryoutpre determinedresultsoftenwiththeminimumoutlayoftime energy orboth Skillscanoftenbedividedintodomain generalanddomain specificskills Thinking cognition goesbeyondtheacquisitionofknowledgeandincludestheprocess es ofknowingandreflectingonthinking metacognition Aprocesscanbedefinedas alogicalseriesofrelatedtransactionsthatconvertsinputtoresultsoroutput Thelogicalseriescanbeanalyzedasoperationalstepsorprincipleswhichwecallthinkingskills 22 Criticalthinking35skills A AffectiveStrategiesS 1thinkingindependentlyS 2developinginsightintoegocentricityorsociocentricityS 3exercisingfairmindednessS 4exploringthoughtsunderlyingfeelingsandfeelingsunderlyingthoughtsS 5developingintellectualhumilityandsuspendingjudgmentS 6developingintellectualcourageS 7developingintellectualgoodfaithorintegrityS 8developingintellectualperseveranceS 9developingconfidenceinreason 23 B CognitiveStrategies Macro AbilitiesS 10refininggeneralizationsandavoidingoversimplificationsS 11comparinganalogoussituations transferringinsightstonewcontextsS 12developingone sperspective creatingorexploringbeliefs arguments ortheoriesS 13clarifyingissues conclusions orbeliefsS 14clarifyingandanalyzingthemeaningsofwordsorphrasesS 15developingcriteriaforevaluation clarifyingvaluesandstandardsS 16evaluatingthecredibilityofsourcesofinformationS 17questioningdeeply raisingandpursuingrootorsignificantquestionsS 18analyzingorevaluatingarguments interpretations beliefs ortheories 24 S 19generatingorassessingsolutionsS 20analyzingorevaluatingactionsorpoliciesS 21readingcritically clarifyingorcritiquingtextsS 22listeningcritically theartofsilentdialogueS 23makinginterdisciplinaryconnectionsS 24practicingSocraticdiscussion clarifyingandquestioningbeliefs theories orperspectivesS 25reasoningdialogically comparingperspectives interpretations ortheoriesS 26reasoningdialectically evaluatingperspectives interpretations ortheories 25 FromPaul Binker Jensen andKreklau 1990 C CognitiveStrategies Micro SkillsS 27comparingandcontrastingidealswithactualpracticeS 28thinkingpreciselyaboutthinking usingcriticalvocabularyS 29notingsignificantsimilaritiesanddifferencesS 30examiningorevaluatingassumptionsS 31distinguishingrelevantfromirrelevantfactsS 32makingplausibleinferences predictions orinterpretationsS 33evaluatingevidenceandallegedfactsS 34recognizingcontradictionsS 35exploringimplicationsandconsequences p 56 26 Logic Clarity Precision Accuracy Depth Significance Fairness 五 Thestandardsofcriticalthinking Breadth Relevance 27 1 LOGIC逻辑性 Whenwethink webringavarietyofthoughtstogetherintosomeorder Whenthecombinationofthoughtsaremutuallysupportingandmakesenseincombination thethinkingis logical Doesallthismakesensetogether Doesyourfirstparagraphfitinwithyourlast Doeswhatyousayfollowfromtheevidence 28 Doesthisreallymakesense Doesthatfollowfromwhatyousaid Howdoesthatfollow Butbeforeyouimpliedthisandnowyouaresayingthat howcanbothbetrue Supermanseesthroughanything Supermanseesthroughwalls SupermanseesthroughYou Whenthecombinationofthoughtsaremutuallysupportingandmakesenseincombination thethinkingis logical Maytheforcebewithyou Logic 29 2 Clarity明确性 Understandable themeaningcanbegrasped Couldyouelaboratefurther Couldyougivemeanexample Couldyouillustratewhatyoumean 30 Couldyouelaboratefurtheronthatpoint Couldyouexpressthatpointinanotherway Couldyougivemeanillustration Couldyougivemeanexample Clarityisthegatewaystandard Clarity 31 3 Accuracy准确性 Astatementcanbeclearbutnotaccurate asin Mostdogsareover300poundsinweight Howcouldwecheckonthat Howcouldwefindoutifthatistrue Howcouldweverifyortestthat 32 Isthatreallytrue Howcouldwecheckthat Howcouldwefindoutifthatistrue Source http www fctl ucf edu tresources content Ruland CriticalThinkingStandards pdf Thischickenweighsover300pounds Astatementcanbeclearbutnotaccurate Accuracy 33 4 PRECISION精确性 Astatementcanbebothclearandaccurate butnotprecise asin Jackisoverweight Couldyoubemorespecific Couldyougivememoredetails Couldyoubemoreexact 34 Couldyougivemoredetails Couldyoubemorespecific Source http www fctl ucf edu tresources content Ruland CriticalThinkingStandards pdf Astatementcanbebothclearandaccurate butnotprecise Precision 35 5 Relevance相关性 Astatementcanbeclear accurate andprecise butnotrelevanttothequestionatissue Howdoesthatrelatetotheproblem Howdoesthatbearonthequestion Howdoesthathelpuswiththeissue 36 Howisthatconnectedtothequestion Howdoesthatbearontheissue Source http www fctl ucf edu tresources content Ruland CriticalThinkingStandards pdf Astatementcanbeclear accurate andprecise butnotrelevanttothequestionatissue Youmustunlearnwhatyouhavelearned Relevance 37 6 Depth深度 Containingcomplexitiesandmultipleinterrelationships Whatfactorsmakethisadifficultproblem Whataresomeofthecomplexitiesofthisquestion Whataresomeofthedifficultiesweneedtodealwith 38 Howdoesyouransweraddressthecomplexitiesinthequestion Howareyoutakingintoaccounttheproblemsinthequestion Isthatdealingwiththemostsignificantfactors Astatementcanbeclear accurate precise andrelevant butsuperficial Depth 39 7 Breadth广度 Encompassingmultipleviewpoints Doweneedtolookatthisfromanotherperspective Doweneedtoconsideranotherpointofview Doweneedtolookatthisinotherways 40 Doweneedtoconsideranotherpointofview Isthereanotherwaytolookatthisquestion Whatwouldthislooklikefromaconservativestandpoint Whatwouldthislooklikefromthepointofviewof Alineofreasoningmaybeclear accurate precise relevant anddeep butlackbreadth Yougot0marksfor Participation becauseyoudidn tparticipateintheclassdiscussionatall Breadth 41 8 Significance意义 Focusingontheimportant nottrivial Isthisthemostimportantproblemtoconsider Isthisthecentralideatofocuson Whichofthesefactsaremostimportant 42 9 Fairness公正 Justifiable notself servingorone sided DoIhaveanyvestedinterestinthisissue AmIsympatheticallyrepresentingtheviewpointsofothers 43 Criticalthinkingdemandsthatourthinkingbefair Open mindedImpartialFreeofdistortingbiasesandpreconceptions Fair mindednessisanessentialattributeofaCriticalThinker Fairness 44 ProfileofaCriticalThinker 45 FivePowerfulBarrierstoCriticalThinking Egocentrism UnwarrantedAssumptions Sociocentrism RelativisticThinking WishfulThinking BarrierstoCriticalThinking 46 以经济适用房为例分析思考的要素 1 Theproblemorquestionatissue 2 Thepurposeorgoalofthethinking 3 Theframeofreferenceorpointsofviewinvolved 4 Assumptionsmade 5 Centralconceptsandideasinvolved 6 Principlesortheoriesused 7 Evidence data orreasonadvanced 8 Interpretationsandclaimsmade 9 inferences reasoning andlinesofformulatedthought 10 Implicationsandconsequenceswhichfollow 47 讨论题 从部分大学生难找工作看大学是否值得上 48 CriticalThinkingAndArgumentation Welcome Prof 冯周卓Office 升华后栋703室 Mobile mail fezz 49 50 PART2 Startthinkingfromproblem Askinggoodquestionsisdifficultbutrewardingwork Yourtimeisvaluable Beforetakingthetimetocriticallyevaluateanissue askthequestion Whocares Questionshelpyouexploredimensionsofaproblem Questionshelpyouexploreyouravailableoptions Questionshelpyouidentifyyourgoalsandintentions 51 一 thinkingisaprocessofaskingandansweringquestions Whenawriterorspeakerhasaconclusionshewantsyoutoaccept shemustpresentreasonstopersuadeyouthatsheisrightandtoshowyouwhy Reasonsprovideanswersforourhumancuriosityaboutwhysomeonemakesaparticulardecisionorholdsaparticularopinion So questioncomesfromaskingthereasons 52 Thosethreeclaimsareeachmissingsomething Wemayormaynotagreewiththem butintheircurrentformtheyareneitherweaknorstrong Noneoftheclaimscontainsanexplanationorrationaleforwhyweshouldagree Thus ifweheardsomeonemakeoneofthosethreeassertions wewouldbelefthungryformore Everyclassshouldconcludewithstudentevaluations Apigissmarterthanamule Employersshouldbeabletofireanyemployeewhorefusestotakeadrugtest 53 Whatismissingisthereasonorreasonsresponsiblefortheclaims Reasonsarebeliefs evidence metaphors analogies andotherstatementsofferedtosupportorjustifyconclusions Theyarethestatementsthattogetherformthebasisforcreatingthecredibilityofaconclusion 54 55 二 Questiondeterminesthedirectionofthinking 名人 黄馨蔓 张纪中 马云等 为什么会成为李一道士的弟子 这个问题的预设是 名人是高智商的 不会轻易被谎言和迷信所蒙骗 这个预设引导你去思考名人与轻信的关系 56 Weakquestionsaredisempowering Theykeepyourfocusedonyourownego yourproblems andyourshortcomings Weakquestionskeepyoufocusedonwhat swrong onwhatisn tworking Strongquestionsareempowering Theykeepyoufocusedonsolutions onwhatyoucancontrol Whenyoufocusonwhatyoucando youavoidfallingintoanalysisparalysis Mostpeopleasklousyquestionsthatcrippletheirresults Lousyquestionsturnyourfocusawayfromwhatyouwantandtowardsmoreofwhatyoudon twant Andsinceweaskandanswermentalquestionseveryday ourquestionswieldgreatpoweroverourresults 57 Situation UponwakingupearlyWeak CanIfallbackasleepagain ShouldIgobacktobed Strong Whatwouldbethebestwaytostartmyday HowcanIenergizemyself WherecanIfindsomethinginspirationalormotivationaltoreadrightnow 58 Weak WhatfoodsamIgoingtohavetogiveup HowamIgoingtodealwiththedeprivation AmIgoingtohavetoeatlikethisforever Strong WhatfoodsthatIlikewillIgettoeatmoreof WhatnewfoodscanIexperimentwith Won titbegreatwhenIreachmygoalweight Won titbewonderfultofinallymasterthisareaofmylifeonceandforall OnceIsucceedatthis whoelsecanIhelp Situation Whenconsideringadietaryimprovement 59 Weak HaveIdoneenoughthatIcanjustifyquittingfortheday Isthisagoodtimetostop CanIfinishthistomorrow Strong What snext HowcanIcompleteonemoretask HowmuchmorecanIgetdonetoday Situation Nearingtheendoftheworkday 60 Weak HowcanIavoidlookinglikeanidiot WhatshouldItalkabout HowcanIkeepfrombeingtoonervousorshy HowdidIgetmyselfintothissituation CanIgetoutofgoing Strong Won titbefuntomeetsomeinterestingnewpeople IfIseesomeonetherewho sabitshy whatcanIdotomakehim herfeelmorecomfortable WhatcanIexpectothersatthiseventtohaveincommonwithme Situation Whenfacinganunfamiliarsocialsituation 61 Weak WhydoIfeelsodown Whycan tIbehappy HowcomeInevergetanytimetomyself Strong WhatcanIdotoenergizemyself WhocanItalktothatwouldhelpcheermeup WhatcanIreadorlistentothatwouldinspireme Arethesefeelingstryingtotellmesomething shouldIgojournalaboutthem HowlongcanIholdafakesmilebeforeitforcesmetostartfeelinggoodagain Situation Whenfeelingdepressed anxious orotherwisenegative 62 三 Questionsaremoreimportantthansolvingproblem Learnfromyesterday livefortoday hopefortomorrow Theimportantthingisnottostopquestioning IfIhadanhourtosolveaproblemandmylifedependedontheanswer Iwouldspendthefirst55minutesfiguringouttheproperquestionstoask ForifIknewtheproperquestions Icouldsolvetheprobleminlessthan5minutes Einstein 63 1 Whatistheproblem 2 Whatarethecausesoftheproblem 3 Whatarethepossiblesolutionstotheproblem 4 Whichisthebestsolutiontotheproblem 5 Whataction s dowetake Askingquestionsbeforesolvingproblem 64 四 TypesofQuestions 1 随意型的问题 你对联想集团国际化失败的案例有什么想法 你对这个问题的哪些方面最感兴趣 我们应该从哪里谈起 2 判断型的问题 你是如何看待这个问题的 你从这些材料中得出了什么结论 3 挑战 或检验 型的问题 你凭什么相信这一点 你有什么证据来证明你的结论 可以通过什么样的论证来反驳这种观点 65 4 关于行动的问题 怎样才能贯彻中央政府要控制高房价的政策 5 关于先后顺序的问题 在当前银行紧缩信贷的情况下 第一步应该做什么 第二步应该做什么 第三步 6 预测型的问题 假如你的判断是对的 对方可能会采取什么对策 66 7 假设型的问题 假设政府继续放松银根 或收紧银根 房地产业会出现什么情况 8 推广型的问题 你对湖北石首市群体性事件原因的分析 对于其他城市的管理者有什么借鉴意义 9 衍生型的问题 如果农民失去对土地的控制权 他们的生活会发生哪些变化 10 综合型的问题 作为一个教师 你认为激励学生努力学习的主要动力有哪些 67 THESIXTYPESOFSOCRATICQUESTIONS 68 当代社会男人更累还是女人更累 课堂辩论 69 CriticalThinkingAndArgumentation Welcome Prof 冯周卓Office 升华后栋703室 Mobile mail fezz 70 71 PART3 Thetypesandstructureofreasoning TrueStatementsFalse 一 Basicconcepts 72 Astatementmustbeclear accurate preciseandrelevant 73 SoundValidDeductiveUnsoundArgumentsInvalid Allareunsound 74 CogentStrongInductiveUncogentArgumentsWeak Allareuncogent 75 Doesthisreallymakesense Doesthatfollowfromwhatyousaid Howdoesthatfollow Butbeforeyouimpliedthisandnowyouaresayingthat howcanbothbetrue Supermanseesthroughanything Supermanseesthroughwalls SupermanseesthroughYou Whenthecombinationofthoughtsaremutuallysupportingandmakesenseincombination thethinkingis logical Maytheforcebewithyou Logic 76 Statement claim Anassertionthatsomethingisorisnotthecase Premise Astatementgiveninsupportofanotherstatement Conclusion Astatementthatpremisesareusedtosupport Argument Agroupofstatementsinwhichsomeofthem thepremises areintendedtosupportanotherofthem theconclusion Theessentialsoflogicalanalysis 77 Mostseriousstudentsarehappystudents andmostseriousstudentsgotograduateschool Furthermore allstudentswhogotograduateschoolareoverworked Whichoneofthefollowingcanbeproperlyinferredfromthestatementsabove a Mostoverworkedstudentsarehappystudents b Somehappystudentsareseriousstudents c Alloverworkedstudentsareseriousstudents d Someunhappystudentsgotograduateschool e Allseriousstudentsareoverworked LSATlogicalreasoningquestion 78 79 TherapiddiminishmentoftheecosystemoftheAmazonthreatenstheentireplanet Consequently wemusttakeimmediatestepstoconvincetheBraziliangovernmentthatplanneddevelopmentprojectsneedtobecurtailedforthesimplereasonthatthesedevelopmentprojectswillgreatlyacceleratethelossofcurrentlyprotectedland Findoutthepremisesandtheconclusioninthefollowing 80 1 D I InductiveReasoning specificpremisesgeneralconclusion II DeductiveReasoning generalpremisesspecificconclusion TypesofArguments 81 Aninductiveargumentmakesacaseforageneralconclusionfrommorespecificpremises Inotherwords specificpremisesareusedtodrawageneralconclusion Ageneralconclusionisinduced 二 INDUCTIVEARGUMENT 82 Premise Sparrowsarebirdsthatfly Premise Eaglesarebirdsthatfly Premise Hawksarebirdsthatfly Premise Larksarebirdsthatfly Conclusion Allbirdsfly Example InductiveArgument 83 Aninductiveargumentcannotproveitsconclusiontrue Aninductiveargumentcanbeevaluatedonlyintermsofitsstrength Thestrengthofaninductiveargumentisameasureofhowwellthepremisessupporttheconclusion Clearly thisis