跨文化习题unit1-9.doc

NEAU跨文化交际习题注意：考试中答名词解释、简答题时，须要举例子说明，否则会扣除相应分数！案例分析题材料中没有，请大家自己到网上搜索相关材料。PS：考试题型为选择、判断、填空、名词解释、翻译句子、简答、案例分析，分值分布年年都在变化。资料含75%考试原题。最后祝小伙伴们顺利通过跨文化交际考试！Unit 1(第一单元抽象的理论很多，只做了名词解释和简答)名词解释Culture: In other words, culture is the set of values and beliefs, norms, and customs, rules and codes that socially defines a group of people, binds them to one another, and gives a sense of commonality Communication is a process by which a source transmits a message to a receiver through some channel.Intercultural communication occurs whenever a minimum of two persons from different cultures or microcultures come together and exchange verbal and nonverbal symbols. 简答1. What is Characteristics of Culture?1) Culture is learned. 2) Culture is transmitted from generation to generation. 3) Culture is based on symbols. 4) Culture is subject to change. 5) Culture is ethnocentric.具体解释如下：1. 1 Culture 1.1.1 A Definition of CultureIn 1993, two anthropologists, Alfred Kroeber and Clyde Kluckhorn examined 300 definitions of culture , and they found none of them are the same；Yet there are some fundamental properties about culture on which most people agree. Culture is the collective answer to questions as: Who am I? How should I live my life? Where do I fit in the world? In other words, culture is the set of values and beliefs, norms, and customs, and rules and codes that socially defines a group of people, binds them to one another, and gives a sense of commonality (Trenholm and Jenson, 2000) 1.1.2 Characteristics of CultureDespite of the different opinion about the definition of culture, most people agree about the main characteristics of culture. Larry A. Samovar and Richard E. Porter summarized the characteristics of culture as followings:Culture is learned. If one cant learn from those who live before, we would not have culture. Therefore, we say learning was the most important of all the characteristics of culture. If a baby was cut off from all adult care, training. He can still instinctively eat, drink, defecate, urinate and cry. But what and when would he eat, where would he defecate and urinate, it is most likely he would do all these things randomly. But where and how can we learn culture is hard to explain. We learn our culture through interactions with other people. Its hard to name who are the “other people”, we receive instructions from family and friends and numerous other “teachers” without knowing it.Culture is transmitted from generation to generation. For culture to exist, endure, and perpetuate, they must make sure that their crucial “message” and elements get passed on. Brislin once said “ if there are values considered central to a society that have existed for many years, they must be transmitted from one generation to another” (p. 6). Keesing said, “ any break in the learning chain would lead to a cultures disappearance” (p. 28).Culture is based on symbols. Culture is learned and passed from generation to generation, but how to learn and pass? It is our symbol-making ability enables us to learn and pass on our culture from individual to individual, group to group, and generation to generation. The portability of symbols allows people to package and store them as well as transmit them. Culture is historical as well as preservable. Each new generation might “write”Culture is subject to change. Cultures are dynamic systems that do not exist in a vacuum and therefore are subject to change. Cultures are constantly being confronted with ideas and information for “outside” sources.When we talk about culture change, we should keep two points in mind. First, cultures are highly adaptive. In history, there are a lot of examples of how cultures have been forced to change their course because of natural disasters, wars, and etc. Second, although many aspects of culture are subject to change, the deep structure of a culture resists major alterations. Barnlund clearly make this point when he writes: “The spread of Buddhism, Islam, Christianity, and Confucianism did not homogenize the societies they enveloped. It was usually the other way around: Societies insisted on adapting the religions to their own cultural traditions” (p.192)Culture is ethnocentric. The important tie between ethnocentrism and communication can be seen in the definition of the term “ ethnocentrism”. Summer defined it as “ the technical name for the view of things in which ones own group is the center of everything, and all others are scaled and rated with reference to it” (p.13) Keesing summarized the power and impact of ethnocentrism “ Nearly always the folklore of a people includes myths of origin which give priority to themselves, and place the stamp of supernatural approval upon their particular customs” (p. 45). 2. What are the Prosperities of Communication?1) Communication is a process2) Communication is dynamic. 3) Communication is interactive/ transitive. 4) Communication is intentional5) Communication is symbolic6) Communication is contextual7) Communication is ubiquitous. 8) Communication is cultural具体解释如下：1. Communication is a process. “Communication theory reflects a process point of view you cannot talk about the beginning or the end of communication”(Berlo)2. Communication is dynamic. “ Communication is a transaction among symbol users in which meanings are dynamic, changing as a function of earlier usages and of changes in perceptions and metaperceptions. Common to both meanings is the notion that communication is time-bound and irreversible.” (Bowers and Bradac)3. Communication is interactive/ transactive. “ Communication occurs when two or more people interact through the exchange of messages.” (Goss)4. Communication is symbolic. “ all the symbols of the mind, together with the means of conveying them through space and preserving them in time.” (Cooley)5. Communication is intentional. “ communication has as its central interest those behavioral situations in which source transmits a message to a receivers with conscious intent to affect the latters behavior.” (Miller)6. Communication is contextual. “Communication always and inevitably occurs within some context.” (Fisher)7. Communication is ubiquitous. “ communication is the discriminatory response of an organism to a stimulus.” (Stevens)8. Communication is cultural. “ culture is communicationcommunication is culture.” (Hall)Unit 3（加粗的要重点记忆，考查方式多样，可能是判断选择或翻译，汉译英英译汉都有！）Translation1.天何言哉？ 四时行焉，百物生焉，天何言哉？Heaven does not speak in words. It speaks through the rotation of the four seasons and the growth of all living things.2.天地之大德曰生The great virtue of Heaven and Earth is creating life.3.获罪于天,无所祷也He who offends against Heaven has none to whom he can pray4. 仁者,爱人,亲亲为大.The greatest love for people is the love for ones parents.5. 己所不欲,勿施于人Do not do toward others anything that you would not want to be done to you6. 父母在,不远游,游必有方.Children should not travel far while their parents are alive. If they have no choice but to do so, they must retain some restraint.7. 父母之年，不可不知也。一则以喜，一则以惧。Children should think often of the age of their parents. They should feel happy for the health and longevity of their parents. They should also feel concern for the aging of their parents.8. 老吾老以及人之老,幼吾幼以及人之幼Expend the respect of the aged in ones family to that of other families; extend the love of the young ones in ones family to that of other families9. 非礼勿视,非礼勿听,非礼勿言,非礼勿动See no evil, hear no evil, speak no evil and do no evil10. 礼之用，和为贵。The role of Li is to maintain harmony among people.11. 无为而无不为Acts through non-action12. 顺其自然。Let the nature take its course.13. 上善若水The greatest virtue is like water.14. 天下莫柔若于水,而攻其坚强者,莫若于水Nothing is weaker than water in the world. Yet nothing is stronger than water when it comes to breaking something strong15. 道可道，非常道；名可名，非常名。The Tao that is utterable is not the eternal Tao; the name that is namable is not the eternal Name. 16. 无，名天地之始；有，名万物之母。The Nothingness is the name of the beginning of the heaven and earth; The Being is the name of the mother of all things17.礼之用，和为贵。先王之道，斯为美。小大由之。有所不行，知和而和，不以礼节之，亦不可行也。In practicing the rules of propriety, a natural ease is to be prized. In the ways prescribed by the ancient kings, this is the excellent quality, and in things small and great we follow them. Yet it is not to be observed in all cases. If one, knowing how such ease should be prized, manifests it, without regulating it by the rules of propriety, this likewise is not to be done18.道生一，一生二，二生三，三生万物 The Tao begets the One; The One consists of the Two in opposition (the Yin and Yang); The Two begets the Three; The Three begets all things of the world. 19.人法地，地法天，天法道，道法自然Man takes Earth as his model; Earth takes heaven as its model; Heaven takes the Tao as its model; The Tao takes what is natural as its model20.以正治国Rule the state with peace and inaction21. 天下神器，不可为也，不可执也。为者败之，执者失之 The kingship is so sacred。That cannot be obtained through force. Those who try to obtain it by force will ruin it; Those who keep it by force will lose it.22.大巧若拙Great ingenuity appears to be stupid.问答题1.介绍一下孔子的生平及贡献；谈一谈你对儒家学说中“仁”的理解，谈一谈你对儒家学说中“礼”的理解。参考答案如下，自己整理总结归纳。3.1.1 ConfuciusConfucius is known as Kong Zi in China, whose given name is Qiu. He was a native of Zouyi, known as Qufu nowadays in Shandong Province, of the State of Lu during the period of the Spring and Autumn Period. Confucius is a great thinker, educator and founder of Confucianism and also an ancient sage to the Chinese people. His words and life stories were recorded by his students in a book, known as Lun Yu which has influenced China for more than 2000 years in history. Much of Confucian thought on Heaven and people represents universal human values. And the concept of “heaven” had a kind of certain holy element, relating to the source of life. Confucius held the view that humans are born with a sense of “heavenly mission” and a person of virtue must “respect his heavenly mission” which is the meaning of human life. Therefore, the ancient Chinese people developed a sense of awe and belief in Heaven. Human beings should listen to the voice of nature, respecting and loving it as the world of life, as Confucius said “He who offends against Heaven has none to whom he can pray.” The Confucian respect and belief in Heaven represented a kind of religious spiritualism of the ancient Chinese. So the Confucian philosophy is the backbone of Chinese philosophy and culture, which influences various aspects of Chinese culture, such as consciousness and customs.3.1.2 Confucianism Confucianism on the Doctrine of RenRen is one of the core concepts of Confucianism, which is the highest principle of morality. The original meaning of “ren” refers to the friendly relationship between people, while Confucius further emphasized “ren” to be the highest category and standard of personality. Confucius defined “ren” as “love people” and it is the core meaning of “ren”. Confucius believed that ren should begin with the love to ones parents and no one could love people in general without love for their parents. Love for people is the universal love to achieve the doctrine of ren. He further proposed, A student of Confucius, Mencius, was a great scholar in history and he summarized ren as “loving ones parents, loving the people, loving everything in the world.” Therefore, its easy to understand that the extended families are rather popular in China and the grandparents would take care of their grandchildren. Meanwhile, the idea that the sons and daughters, especially the sons of each family, are certainly to be born with the responsibility to support their parents when their parents are old. Confucianism on the Doctrine of LiLi is the other core concept of Confucianism and refers to rituals, moralities and norms of the social life in our society. It was said by Confucius to deny self and return to propriety to achieve the goal of ren. As one doctrine of Confucianism, it can ensure that every person must obey the social rules of morality. Therefore, Confucius gave strong emphasis on li in order to maintain the social order, rules and regulations, stability and harmony. Confucianism on The Doctrine of MeanThe doctrine of mean is a kind of philosophical category that was proposed by Confucius with the inheritage and summary of the neutralization thought. The doctrine of mean is regarded as the supreme principle of morality, which refers to the mastery of appropriateness to keep balance and to make the words and behaviors of human beings fit for the established moral standards.In the Analects, Confucius said: “In practicing the rules of propriety, a natural ease is to be prized. In the ways prescribed by the ancient kings, this is the excellent quality, and in things small and great we follow them. Yet it is not to be observed in all cases. If one, knowing how such ease should be prized, manifests it, without regulating it by the rules of propriety, this likewise is not to be done.”(“礼之用，和为贵。先王之道，斯为美。小大由之。有所不行，知和而和，不以礼节之，亦不可行也。”)Consequently, the core thought of the doctrine of mean is doing things according to “li”. To some degree, the doctrine of mean regulates peoples thought, words and behavior in the range of social and moral rules and regulations. This can also explain why Chinese people are usually subtle, modest and indirect in expressing and doing, which has become a kind of ideal in their mind. This is good for analyzing the cases of Chinese people words and behavior, such as “bu gan, bu gan.” When they are praised, they usually respond with the expression like “Na li, na li” and “No, no, not at all.”、2. 谈一谈你对道家思想中“自然”“无为”的理解。参考答案如下，自己整理总结归纳。3.2.1 Laozis Philosophy on NaturalnessNaturalness is a kind of concept of Laozis philosophy. It points out that everything has its own way of being and development. It is the origin of the world and refers to a state of being, a king of attitude of following way of the nature. The divine law is formless and invisibly empty; but its use is inexhaustible or extremely plentiful. It is profound, when it springs all things 1ike the originator or ancestor in the universe. (道冲，而用之或不盈；渊兮，似万物之宗。) Therefore, Laozi said that the Tao is the mother of all things, thus it begets all things as “The Tao begets the One; The One consists of the Two in opposition (the Yin and Yang); The Two begets the Three; The Three begets all things of the world. (Ch. 42)”(Gu, 2000:27) It is believed that the Tao does not beget all these things at one time, but it undergoes a gradual evolutionary process independently and naturally without following any human beings will. That can explain the idea that people should not try to change the world or control the world according to their will. So following the way (Tao) of nature is the best way to solve the conflicts between human and nature to keep harmony. Hence, it can be concluded that the supreme way of nature is naturalness, following the natural way as it goes. Therefore, Laozi said, “Man takes Earth as his model; Earth takes heaven as its model; Heaven takes the Tao as its model; The Tao takes what is natural as its model.(Ch. 25)” (Gu, 2000:33) 3.2.2 Laozis Philosophy on Non-actionNon-action is another core thought of Laozis philosophy, which is the methodology to realize the naturalness. It does not mean that people should not do anything and wait for something passively. Laozi meant that human beings should do things according to the way of nature or Tao, but not attempt to disobey the way of nature. Non-action or inaction is a kind of political idea in governing the world. Such as the words said by Laozi “ Rule the state with peace and inaction.” “Those who hold it by force will lose it. Thus the sage never ruins anything because of his inaction; He never loses anything.” So this saying has great influence in peoples action nowadays. It can analyze the idea that people can learn to give up sometimes. It is the very inaction that makes people do whatever they like, just as “when reaching the state of inaction”. An old saying, that is “Great ingenuity appears to be stupid.”, really shows the essence of “naturalness” and “non-action”. The core thought of non-action doesnt mean weakness. On the contrary, it means strength. just like water, “Nothing is weaker than water in the world. Yet nothing is stronger than water when it comes to breaking something strong. This has laid a good foundation to Taoism.3.2.3 TaoismTaoism mainly focuses on the self-cultivation. The main doctrine of Taoism is, as said in the Book of Tao, “The Tao that is utterable is not the eternal Tao; the name that is namable is not the eternal Name. The Nothingness is the name of the beginning of the heaven and earth; The Being is the name of the mother of all things. Hence one should gain an insight into the beginning of the Tao by constantly observing the Nothingness; and should perceive the end of the Tao by constantly observing the Being. These two things, the Nothingness and the Being, are of the same origin but different in name. They are both so profound as to be a key to the door of myriad secrets.” (Gu, 2000) According to Laozi, Taoism instructs people to observe the mystery of Tao from Nothingness and to gain an insight of Tao from Being. Only by understanding the Nothingness and Being can people observe the mystery and change of the universe.Taoism also views that all the things in the world rely on are mutually interdependent, which emphasizes the characteristics of change, law and imperceptibility. It enlightens people to follow the natural rule and take the world as you find it and to purge ones mind of desire and ambitions and be indifferent to the reputation and wealth. M